control systems
control systems,
combinations of components (electrical, mechanical, thermal, or hydraulic) that act together to maintain actual system performance close to a desired set of performance specifications. Open-loop control systems (e.g., automatic toasters and alarm clocks) are those in which the output has no effect on the input. Closed-loop control systems (e.g., thermostats, engine governors, automotive cruise-control systems, and automatic tuning controlautomatic tuning control(ATC), method or device to keep a radio or television receiver automatically tuned to a desired frequency or channel. Assuming that the receiver is at least approximately tuned to the desired frequency, a circuit in the receiver develops an error voltage
..... Click the link for more information. circuits) are those in which the output has an effect on the input in such a way as to maintain the desired output value. A closed-loop system includes some way to measure its output to sense changes so that corrective action can be taken. The speed with which a simple closed-loop control system moves to correct its output is described by its damping ratio and natural frequency. A system with a small damping ratio is characterized by overshooting the desired output before settling down. Systems with larger damping ratios do not overshoot the desired output, but respond more slowly. See feedbackfeedback,
arrangement for the automatic self-regulation of an electrical, mechanical, or biological system by returning part of its output as input. A simple example of feedback is provided by a governor on an engine; if the speed of the engine exceeds a preset limit, the
..... Click the link for more information. .
Control systems
Interconnections of components forming system configurations which will provide a desired system response as time progresses. The steering of an automobile is a familiar example. The driver observes the position of the car relative to the desired location and makes corrections by turning the steering wheel. The car responds by changing direction, and the driver attempts to decrease the error between the desired and actual course of travel. In this case, the controlled output is the automobile's direction of travel, and the control system includes the driver, the automobile, and the road surface. The control engineer attempts to design a steering control mechanism which will provide a desired response for the automobile's direction control. Different steering designs and automobile designs result in rapid responses, as in the case of sports cars, or relatively slow and comfortable responses, as in the case of large autos with power steering.
Open- and closed-loop control
The basis for analysis of a control system is the foundation provided by linear system theory, which assumes a cause-effect relationship for the components of a system. A component or process to be controlled can be represented by a block. Each block possesses an input (cause) and output (effect). The input-output relation represents the cause-and-effect relationship of the process, which in turn represents a processing of the input signal to provide an output signal variable, often with power amplification. An open-loop control system utilizes a controller or control actuator in order to obtain the desired response (Fig. 1).
In contrast to an open-loop control system, a closed-loop control system utilizes an additional measure of the actual output in order to compare the actual output with the desired output response (Fig. 2). A standard definition of a feedback control system is a control system which tends to maintain a prescribed relationship of one system variable to another by comparing functions of these variables and using the difference as a means of control. In the case of the driver steering an automobile, the driver uses his or her sight to visually measure and compare the actual location of the car with the desired location. The driver then serves as the controller, turning the steering wheel. The process represents the dynamics of the steering mechanism and the automobile response.
A feedback control system often uses a function of a prescribed relationship between the output and reference input to control the process. Often, the difference between the output of the process under control and the reference input is amplified and used to control the process so that the difference is continually reduced. The feedback concept has been the foundation for control system analysis and design.
Applications for feedback systems
Familiar control systems have the basic closed-loop configuration. For example, a refrigerator has a temperature setting for desired temperature, a thermostat to measure the actual temperature and the error, and a compressor motor for power amplification. Other examples in the home are the oven, furnace, and water heater. In industry, there are controls for speed, process temperature and pressure, position, thickness, composition, and quality, among many others. Feedback control concepts have also been applied to mass transportation, electric power systems, automatic warehousing and inventory control, automatic control of agricultural systems, biomedical experimentation and biological control systems, and social, economic, and political systems. See Biomedical engineering, Electric power systems, Systems analysis, Systems engineering
Advantages of feedback control
The addition of feedback to a control system results in several important advantages. A process, whatever its nature, is subject to a changing environment, aging, ignorance of the exact values of the process parameters, and other natural factors which affect a control process. In the open-loop system, all these errors and changes result in a changing and inaccurate output. However, a closed-loop system senses the change in the output due to the process changes and attempts to correct the output. The sensitivity of a control system to parameter variations is of prime importance. A primary advantage of a closed-loop feedback control system is its ability to reduce the system's sensitivity.
One of the most important characteristics of control systems is their transient response, which often must be adjusted until it is satisfactory. If an open-loop control system does not provide a satisfactory response, then the process must be replaced or modified. By contrast, a closed-loop system can often be adjusted to yield the desired response by adjusting the feedback loop parameters.
A second important effect of feedback in a control system is the control and partial elimination of the effect of disturbance signals. Many control systems are subject to extraneous disturbance signals which cause the system to provide an inaccurate output. Feedback systems have the beneficial aspect that the effect of distortion, noise, and unwanted disturbances can be effectively reduced.
Costs of feedback control
While the addition of feedback to a control system results in the advantages outlined above, it is natural that these advantages have an attendant cost. The cost of feedback is first manifested in the increased number of components and the complexity of the system. The second cost of feedback is the loss of gain. Usually, there is open-loop gain to spare, and one is more than willing to trade it for increased control of the system response. Finally, a cost of feedback is the introduction of the possibility of instability. While the open-loop system is stable, the closed-loop system may not be always stable.
Stability of closed-loop systems
The transient response of a feedback control system is of primary interest and must be investigated. A very important characteristic of the transient performance of a system is the stability of the system. A stable system is defined as a system with a bounded system response. That is, if the system is subjected to a bounded input or disturbance and the response is bounded in magnitude, the system is said to be stable.
The concept of stability can be illustrated by considering a right circular cone placed on a plane horizontal surface. If the cone is resting on its base and is tipped slightly, it returns to its original equilibrium position. This position and response is said to be stable. If the cone rests on its side and is displaced slightly, it rolls with no tendency to leave the position on its side. This position is designated as neutral stability. On the other hand, if the cone is placed on its tip and released, it falls onto its side. This position is said to be unstable.
The stability of a dynamic system is defined in a similar manner. The response to a displacement, or initial condition, will result in a decreasing, neutral, or increasing response.
Design
A feedback control system that provides an optimum performance without any necessary adjustments is rare indeed. Usually one finds it necessary to compromise among the many conflicting and demanding specifications and to adjust the system parameters to provide a suitable and acceptable performance when it is not possible to obtain all the desired optimum specifications.
It is often possible to adjust the system parameters in order to provide the desired system response. However, it is often not possible to simply adjust a system parameter and thus obtain the desired performance. Rather, the scheme or plan of the system must be reexamined, and a new design or plan must be obtained which results in a suitable system. Thus, the design of a control system is concerned with the arrangement, or the plan, of the system structure and the selection of suitable components and parameters. For example, if one desires a set of performance measures to be less than some specified values, one often encounters a conflicting set of requirements. If these two performance requirements cannot be relaxed, the system must be altered in some way. The alteration or adjustment of a control system, in order to make up for deficiencies and inadequacies and provide a suitable performance, is called compensation.
In redesigning a control system in order to alter the system response, an additional component or device is inserted within the structure of the feedback system to equalize or compensate for the performance deficiency. The compensating device may be an electric, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, or other-type device or network, and is often called a compensator.
Digital computer systems
The use of a digital computer as a compensator device has grown since 1970 as the price and reliability of digital computers have improved.
Within a computer control system, the digital computer receives and operates on signals in digital (numerical) form, as contrasted to continuous signals. The measurement data are converted from analog form to digital form by means of a converter. After the digital computer has processed the inputs, it provides and output in digital form, which is then converted to analog form by a digital-to-analog converter. See Analog-to-digital converter
Automatic handling equipment for home, school, and industry is particularly useful for hazardous, repetitious, dull, or simple tasks. Machines that automatically load and unload, cut, weld, or cast are used by industry in order to obtain accuracy, safety, economy, and productivity. Robots are programmable computers integrated with machines. They often substitute for human labor in specific repeated tasks. Some devices even have anthropomorphic mechanisms, including what might be recognized as mechanical arms, wrists, and hands. Robots may be used extensively in space exploration and assembly. They can be flexible, accurate aids on assembly lines. See Robotics