Russo-Polish War of 1654–67

a war between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Rzeczpospolita) over Byelorussia and the Ukraine. It was caused by increasing tension between the two states in the 1640’s, especially after the outbreak of the War of the Liberation of the Ukrainian People of 1648–54. A growing class struggle in the Russian state in the period 1648–51, precarious finances, and military unprepared-ness postponed active Russian intervention on the side of the Ukrainian people until 1654. On Oct. 1, 1653, the zemskii sobor agreed to receive the Ukraine under Russian rule. This was tantamount to an official declaration of war on Poland.

The main Russian army numbered more than 41,000. Led by the voevody (military commanders) Prince Ia. K. Cherkasskii, Prince N. I. Odoevskii, and Prince M. I. Temkin-Rostovskii, it took Belaia and Dorogobuzh and in early July besieged Smolensk. However, it did not storm Smolensk lest J. Radziwiłł’s Lithuanian army of about 10,000 men attack from the vicinity of Orsha. Prince Cherkasskii’s troops, sent out to meet the threat, captured Orsha and routed Radziwiłł at Shklov. On September 23, Russian troops captured Smolensk.

The southwestern wing of the Russian troops, led by the voevoda Prince A. N. Trubetskoi, advanced from the vicinity of Briansk, capturing Roslavl’, Mstislavl’, Shklov, and other cities. I. N. Zolotarenko’s Ukrainian detachment took Gomel’, Novyi Bykhov, and other cities, thus clearing the entire area between the Dnieper and Berezina rivers. The northern wing of the Russian troops, led by the voevoda V. P. Sheremetev, was concentrated in the vicinities of Novgorod and Pskov. It took Nevel’ on July 1, Polotsk on July 17, and Vitebsk on November 17.

In the autumn of 1654 the Russian forces launched an offensive against the fortresses of Livland Województwo in the Commonwealth, taking Lucyn (now Ludza), Pzeżyca (now Rēzekne), and Łuża. At the same time, combined Russo-Ukrainian forces under B. Khmel’nitskii and A. V. Buturlin launched an offensive from the vicinity of Fastov and captured Ostrog, Mezhirech’e, Rovno, and other cities.

In the winter and spring of 1654–55, Polish-Lithuanian troops under Radziwiłł, Gąsiewski, and other commanders invaded the liberated regions of Byelorussia, relieved Staryi Bykhov, and captured Kopys’, Dubrovno, and Orsha. In the Ukraine, the Poles and their Tatar allies defeated the Russian and Ukrainian troops at Zhashkov. However, an unsuccessful three-month siege of Mogilev and the defeat of the Polish and Tatar armies at Akhmatov (January 1655) by Sheremetev and Khmel’nitskii frustrated the Commonwealth’s offensive.

Cherkasskii’s army and Zolotarenko’s forces took Minsk on July 3, 1655, and the main Russian army captured Wilno (Vilnius) on July 31 and Kovno (Kaunas) and Grodno in August. In August and September, Zolotarenko’s cossack detachments cleared the area around the Neman (Nemunas, Niemen) River. However, a strong Lithuanian garrison remained in the rear of Cherkasskii’s army in the fortress of Staryi Bykhov. Trubetskoi took Kletsk, Stolovichi, and Slonim. In September, Buturlin’s Russian detachment and Khmel’nitskii’s Ukrainian troops laid siege to L’vov, and Prince F. Volkonskii defeated the Polish-Lithuanian forces in the Pripiat’ (Pripet) River basin. Sheremetev captured only Velizh (June 17), and complications with Sweden forestalled any campaign against Wilno.

In the summer of 1655, Sweden opened hostilities against Poland. Swedish troops captured Poznań and Kalisz in July, Warsaw in August, and then Kraków, and, in the Baltic region, Dynaburg (Daugavpils, Dünaburg). The Swedish victories drastically altered Russia’s foreign policy. In an attempt to prevent total Swedish domination of the Baltic, the Russian government in late 1655 began preparing for war with Sweden. It brought its military actions against Poland to a halt and in the spring of 1656 opened negotiations with the Polish government. However, the only result was an agreement, on Oct. 23 (Nov. 2), 1656, to suspend military operations and to resume the negotiations after one year. In May 1656, Russia declared war on Sweden (seeRUSSO-SWEDISH WAR OF 1656–58).

Although it won several important victories in the Baltic region, the Russian government ceased military actions and signed the Valiesar Treaty of 1658. Circumstances forced it to do so: Denmark had left the war in February 1658; the Russo-Polish peace negotiations had collapsed; and above all, the situation in the Ukraine had deteriorated after B. Khmel’nitskii’s death. The newly elected hetman I. Vygovskii signed the Ga-diach Treaty of 1658 with the Polish government, providing for the Ukraine to revert to Polish rule.

Military actions resumed in October 1658. P. Sapieha’s and Gasiewski’s Polish-Lithuanian troops blockaded Wilno; however, on October 11, Iu. A. Dolgorukov’s Russian troops defeated Gasiewski, and Sapieha withdrew. Nonetheless, the Russian troops were still in a difficult position, especially owing to betrayal on the part of the szlachta (Polish nobility or gentry) in the liberated regions of Byelorussia and on the part of the Ukrainian troops (I. Nechai and others) that supported Vygovskii. As a result, the Polish army took several cities in Byelorussia.

During the winter campaign of 1658–59 and in 1659, the Russian troops overcame the szlachta’s treachery in Byelorussia and thus retained most of the territory they had previously liberated. In December 1659, Russian troops look Staryi Bykhov. Prince Trubetskoi’s troops set out for the Ukraine and besieged Konotop. Vygovskii’s forces and the Crimean Tatars also moved into this area. The Russians were defeated in July 1659 and withdrew from Konotop. In August, however, Russian troops from Kiev decisively defeated Vygovskii and the Crimean Tatars. Vygovskii was overthrown, and Iu. B. Khmel’nitskii, B. Khmel’nitskii’s son, was elected hetman.

Gradually the Polish-Lithuanian command took the military initiative. The Peace of Oliva in 1660 between Poland and Sweden and the resulting transfer of Polish-Lithuanian troops from Livland and Prussia further complicated Russia’s situation. In 1660, Polish-Lithuanian troops regained control over the greater part of Byelorussia. The situation was especially grave in the Ukraine, where Iu. Khmel’nitskii’s treachery forced Sheremetev to capitulate. By early 1661, Poland had seized all of the Right-bank Ukraine except Kiev. This forced the Russian government to sign the Treaty of Kardis (1661) with Sweden, by which Sweden promised not to interfere in the Russo-Polish war. In 1661 the Polish army captured Mogilev, Sebezh, Disna, and other fortresses; Wilno fell in November 1661.

Because the domestic situation in both Poland and Russia had deteriorated drastically, the two countries entered into negotiations, which, however, were inconclusive (1662, 1663, 1664, and 1666). In 1663–64 engagements of local significance were fought in Byelorussia. At the same time, the Polish king John Casimir mounted a campaign into the Left-bank Ukraine. However, the Polish siege of Glukhov in January 1664 failed, and the Polish troops were subsequently defeated at Novgo-rod-Severskii. In the summer of 1664 the Polish troops defeated a Russian army at Vitebsk. There were virtually no military actions in 1665.

Russo-Polish negotiations resumed in April 1666 in the village of Andrusovo. The Russian government tried to take advantage of the Lubomirski rebellion against John Casimir and in the summer of 1666 backed up its demands with military actions. The mutual exhaustion of the two belligerents forced both governments to conclude the Armistice of Andrusovo (1667), which ended the Russo-Polish War of 1654–67. By the provisions of the armistice, Russia regained the lands that had passed to Poland after the Polish-Swedish intervention of the early 17th century—including the Chernigov-Severskii and Smolensk lands and the cities of Nevel’ and Velizh. It also renounced its claims to the Right-bank Ukraine. Poland, in turn, recognized the reunification of the Left-bank Ukraine with Russia. Kiev and its environs were ceded to Russia until 1669, and the Zaporozhskaia Sech’ was placed under the joint control of Russia and Poland.