United Nations

See also: United Nations Members (table)United Nations Members
Country Year of Entry
Afghanistan 1946
Albania 1955
Algeria 1962
Andorra 1993
Angola 1976
Antigua and Barbuda 1981
Argentina 1945
Armenia 1992
Australia 1945
Austria 1955
Azerbaijan 1992
Bahamas 1973
Bahrain 1971
..... Click the link for more information. , United Nations Secretaries-General (table)United Nations Secretaries-General
Secretary-General Nationality Dates in Office
Trygve Halvdan Lie Norwegian 1946–53
Dag Hammarskjöld Swedish 1953–61
U Thant Burmese 1962–71
Kurt Waldheim Austrian 1972–81
..... Click the link for more information.

United Nations

(UN), international organization established immediately after World War II. It replaced the League of NationsLeague of Nations,
former international organization, established by the peace treaties that ended World War I. Like its successor, the United Nations, its purpose was the promotion of international peace and security.
..... Click the link for more information. . In 1945, when the UN was founded, there were 51 members; 193 nations are now members of the organization (see table entitled United Nations MembersUnited Nations Members
Country Year of Entry
Afghanistan 1946
Albania 1955
Algeria 1962
Andorra 1993
Angola 1976
Antigua and Barbuda 1981
Argentina 1945
Armenia 1992
Australia 1945
Austria 1955
Azerbaijan 1992
Bahamas 1973
Bahrain 1971
..... Click the link for more information. ).

Organization and Principles

The Charter of the United Nations comprises a preamble and 19 chapters divided into 111 articles. The charter sets forth the purposes of the UN as: the maintenance of international peace and security; the development of friendly relations among states; and the achievement of cooperation in solving international economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems. It expresses a strong hope for the equality of all people and the expansion of basic freedoms.

The principal organs of the UN, as specified in the charter, are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social CouncilEconomic and Social Council,
constituent organ of the United Nations. It was established by the UN Charter and has 54 (18 before 1965) member nations elected for three-year terms (one third every year) by the General Assembly.
..... Click the link for more information. , the Trusteeship Council (see trusteeship, territorialtrusteeship, territorial,
system of UN control for territories that were not self-governing. It replaced the mandates of the League of Nations. Provided for under chapters 12 and 13 of the Charter of the United Nations, the trusteeship system was intended to promote the welfare
..... Click the link for more information. ), the International Court of JusticeInternational Court of Justice,
principal judicial organ of the United Nations, established 1946 by chapter 14 of the UN Charter. It superseded the Permanent Court of International Justice (see World Court), and its statute for the most part repeats that of the former tribunal.
..... Click the link for more information. , and the Secretariat. Other bodies that function as specialized agencies of the UN but are not specifically provided for in the charter are the Food and Agriculture OrganizationFood and Agriculture Organization
(FAO), specialized agency of the United Nations, established in 1945. Its headquarters is in Rome, and it has a number of regional, subregional, and liaison offices around the world.
..... Click the link for more information. , the International Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
(IBRD), independent specialized agency of the United Nations, with headquarters at Washington, D.C.; one of five closely associated development institutions (also including the International Center for Settlement of
..... Click the link for more information. and the associated International Finance Corporation and International Development Association, the International Civil Aviation OrganizationInternational Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO), specialized agency of the United Nations, organized in 1947, with headquarters at Montreal. The objective of the ICAO, which has 190 member nations, is to encourage the orderly growth of international civil aviation, establishing
..... Click the link for more information. , the International Labor OrganizationInternational Labor Organization
(ILO), specialized agency of the United Nations, with headquarters in Geneva. It was created in 1919 by the Versailles Treaty and affiliated with the League of Nations until 1945, when it voted to sever ties with the League.
..... Click the link for more information. , the International Maritime Organization, the International Monetary FundInternational Monetary Fund
(IMF), specialized agency of the United Nations, established in 1945. It was planned at the Bretton Woods Conference (1944), and its headquarters are in Washington, D.C.
..... Click the link for more information. , the International Telecommunication UnionInternational Telecommunication Union
(ITU), specialized agency of the United Nations, with headquarters at Geneva. It was created in 1934 as a result of the merging of the International Telegraph Union (est.
..... Click the link for more information. , the United Nations Children's FundUnited Nations Children's Fund
(UNICEF), a specialized fund of the United Nations. It was established in 1946 as the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, and became a permanent part of the United Nations in 1953, when it acquired its current name (but retained
..... Click the link for more information. , the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural OrganizationUnited Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), specialized agency of the United Nations, with headquarters in Paris. Its counterpart in the League of Nations was the International Committee for Intellectual Cooperation.
..... Click the link for more information. , the Universal Postal UnionUniversal Postal Union
(UPU), specialized agency of the United Nations since 1948, with headquarters at Bern, Switzerland. Established in 1875 following adoption of the Universal Postal Convention, it is one of the oldest extant international governmental organizations.
..... Click the link for more information. , the World Health OrganizationWorld Health Organization
(WHO), specialized agency of the United Nations, established in 1948, with its headquarters at Geneva. WHO admits all sovereign states (including those not belonging to the United Nations) to full membership, and it admits territories that are not
..... Click the link for more information. , the World Intellectual Property Organization, and the World Meteorological OrganizationWorld Meteorological Organization
(WMO), specialized agency of the United Nations; established in 1950 with headquarters at Geneva, it became affiliated with the United Nations a year later. It replaced the International Meteorological Organization, which was established in 1873.
..... Click the link for more information. . Temporary agencies have included the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation AdministrationUnited Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration
(UNRRA), organization founded (1943) during World War II to give aid to areas liberated from the Axis powers. There were finally 52 participating countries, each of which contributed funds amounting to 2% of its national
..... Click the link for more information. , the International Refugee OrganizationInternational Refugee Organization
(IRO), temporary agency of the United Nations, established in 1946. In arranging for the care and the repatriation or resettlement of Europeans made homeless by World War II, the organization brought to a conclusion part of the work of the
..... Click the link for more information. (whose responsibilities were later assumed by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for RefugeesUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Office of the
(UNHCR), established Dec. 14, 1950, by the General Assembly. It superseded the International Refugee Organization.
..... Click the link for more information. ), and the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East which is still in existence.

The official languages of the UN are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish. The working languages of the General Assembly are English, French, and Spanish (in the Security Council only English and French are working languages).

The Secretariat and the Secretary-General

All UN administrative functions are handled by the Secretariat, with the secretary-general at its head. The charter does not prescribe a term for the secretary-general, but a five-year term has become standard. Trygve LieLie, Trygve Halvdan
, 1896–1968, Norwegian statesman, first secretary-general of the United Nations. A lawyer and Labor party leader, he was Norwegian minister of justice (1935–39) and minister of trade and supply (1939–41).
..... Click the link for more information. , the first secretary-general, was succeeded by Dag HammarskjöldHammarskjöld, Dag
, 1905–61, Swedish statesman, secretary-general of the United Nations (1953–61). He attended the universities of Uppsala and Stockholm (Ph.D., 1934).
..... Click the link for more information. (1953–61), who served until his death. U ThantThant, U
, 1909–74, Burmese diplomat, secretary-general of the United Nations (1962–72). Educated at University College, Yangon, he later held positions in education, the press, and broadcasting.
..... Click the link for more information. , acting secretary-general, was elected secretary-general (1962), was reelected in 1966, and served through 1971. Succeeding secretaries-general were: Kurt WaldheimWaldheim, Kurt
, 1918–2007, Austrian diplomat, secretary-general of the United Nations (1972–81) and president of Austria (1986–92). He entered diplomatic service after World War II, serving in France and Canada.
..... Click the link for more information. (1972–81); Javier Pérez de CuéllarPérez de Cuéllar, Javier,
1920–, Peruvian diplomat, secretary-general of the United Nations (1982–92). He entered the Peruvian foreign service in 1940 and served in several posts, including ambassador to the USSR (1969–71) and the United Nations
..... Click the link for more information. (1982–91), Boutros Boutros-GhaliBoutros-Ghali, Boutros
, 1922–2016, Egyptian statesman, secretary-general of the United Nations (1992–96). Born into a politically connected Coptic Christian family, he earned degrees in law at the universities of Cairo (LL.B., 1946) and Paris (Ph.D., 1949).
..... Click the link for more information. (1992–96), Kofi AnnanAnnan, Kofi Atta
1938–2018, Ghanaian diplomat, the seventh secretary-general of the United Nations (1997–2006) and the first person to hold that office who came from the organization's international bureaucracy, b. Kumasi.
..... Click the link for more information. (1997–2006), Ban Ki-MoonBan Ki-Moon
, 1944–, South Korean diplomat, secretary-general of the United Nations (2007–16), b. Chungju, grad. Seoul National Univ. (B.S., 1970), Kennedy School of Government, Harvard (M.P.A., 1985).
..... Click the link for more information. (2007–2016), and António GuterresGuterres, António
(António Manuel de Oliveira Guterres), 1949–, Portuguese political leader, secretary-general of the United Nations (2017–), b. Lisbon, grad. Instituto Superior Ténico, Univ. of Lisbon (1971).
..... Click the link for more information. (2017–). (See also the table entitled United Nations Secretaries-GeneralUnited Nations Secretaries-General
Secretary-General Nationality Dates in Office
Trygve Halvdan Lie Norwegian 1946–53
Dag Hammarskjöld Swedish 1953–61
U Thant Burmese 1962–71
Kurt Waldheim Austrian 1972–81
..... Click the link for more information. .) The secretary-general transcends a merely administrative role by his authority to bring situations to the attention of various UN organs, by his position as an impartial party in effecting conciliation, and especially by his power to "perform such … functions as are entrusted to him" by other UN organs. Also strengthening the office of secretary-general is the large Secretariat staff, which is recruited on a wide geographic basis and is required to work exclusively in the interests of the organization.

The General Assembly

The only UN body provided by the charter in which all member states are represented is the General Assembly. The General Assembly was designed to be a deliberative body dealing chiefly with general questions of a political, social, or economic character. It meets in a regular annual session beginning the third Tuesday in September; special sessions are sometimes held. It has seven main committees set up to deal with specific matters designated as (1) political and security, (2) economic and financial, (3) social, humanitarian, and cultural, (4) trusteeship, (5) administrative and budgetary, (6) legal, and (7) special political. It also has procedural, standing, and many ad hoc committees. The assembly passes on the budget and sets the assessments of the member countries. It may conduct studies and make recommendations but may not advise on matters under Security Council consideration, unless by Security Council request. In the assembly, decisions on routine matters are taken by a simple majority of members voting; a two-thirds majority is required for matters of importance, such as the admission of new members, the revision of the charter, and budgetary and trusteeship questions.

The Security Council

The Security Council was constructed as an organ with primary responsibility for preserving peace. Unlike the General Assembly, it was given power to enforce measures and was organized as a compact executive organ. Also unlike the assembly, the Security Council in theory functions continuously at the seat of the UN.

The council has 15 members. Five—China (until 1971 the Republic of China [Taiwan]; since then the People's Republic of China), France, Great Britain, the United States, and Russia (until 1991 the USSR)—are permanent. The 10 (originally six) nonpermanent members are elected for two-year terms by the General Assembly; equitable geographic distribution is required. Customarily there are five nonpermanent members from African and Asian states, one from Eastern Europe, two from Latin America, and two from Western Europe and elsewhere. In the council the presidency is occupied for one-month terms in the alphabetical order of the members' names in English.

In 1997 a UN commission proposed changes to the council, including adding five new permanent members without veto powers, adding four additional nonpermanent members, and placing restrictions on the use of the veto. The proposed changes were regarded by many nations as a groundwork for negotiations on the eventual restructuring of the council. Brazil, Germany, India, Japan, and South Africa have sought permanent seats on the council, and in July, 2005, the first four nations submitted a General Assembly resolution calling for the expansion of the council (but not for veto-power for new permanent members). The African Union, however, has called for new permanent members to have the veto and for Africa to receive two permanent seats. There has been no significant progress on the issue, but in Sept., 2008, the General Assembly unanimously called for intergovernmental negotiations on the enlargement of the council, which began in Feb., 2009.

There are two systems of voting in the Security Council. On procedural matters the affirmative vote of any nine members is necessary, but on substantive matters the nine affirmative votes required must include those of the five permanent members. This requirement of Big Five unanimity embodies the so-called veto. In practice the council has, on most substantive matters, not treated an abstention by a permanent member as a veto. In two situations, however, those of recommending applicants for UN membership and of approving proposed amendments to the charter, the actual concurrence of all permanent members has been required. The veto has prevented much substantive action by the UN, but it embodies the reality that resolution of major crises requires agreement of the major powers.

Under the charter the council may take measures on any danger to world peace. It may act upon complaint of a member or of a nonmember, on notification by the secretary-general or by the General Assembly, or of its own volition. In general the council considers matters of two sorts. The first is "disputes" (or situations that may give rise to them) that might endanger peace. Here the council is limited to making recommendations to the parties after it has exhausted other methods of reaching a solution. In the case of more serious matters, such as "threats to the peace," "breaches of the peace," and "acts of aggression," the council may take enforcement measures. These may range from full or partial rupture of economic or diplomatic relations to military operations of any scope deemed necessary. By the terms of the charter, the UN was forbidden to intervene in matters "which are essentially … domestic," but this limitation was not intended to hinder Security Council measures to prevent threats to peace. The charter was intentionally ambiguous regarding domestic issues that could also be construed as threats to peace and left a potential opening for intervention in domestic issues that threaten to have dangerous international repercussions.

History

Origins

The earliest concrete plan for the formation of a new world organization was begun under the aegis of the U.S. State Department late in 1939. The name United Nations was coined by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1941 to describe the countries fighting against the Axis. It was first used officially on Jan. 1, 1942, when 26 states joined in the Declaration by the United Nations, pledging themselves to continue their joint war effort and not to make peace separately. The need for an international organization to replace the League of Nations was first stated officially on Oct. 30, 1943, in the Moscow Declaration, issued by China, Great Britain, the United States, and the USSR.

At the Dumbarton Oaks Conference (Aug.–Oct., 1944), those four countries drafted specific proposals for a charter for the new organization, and at the Yalta ConferenceYalta Conference,
meeting (Feb. 4–11, 1945), at Yalta, Crimea, USSR, of British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin.
..... Click the link for more information. (Feb., 1945) further agreement was reached. All the states that had ultimately adhered to the 1942 declaration and had declared war on Germany or Japan by Mar. 1, 1945, were called to the founding conference held in San Francisco (Apr. 25–June 26, 1945). Drafted at San Francisco, the UN charter was signed on June 26 and ratified by the required number of states on Oct. 24 (officially United Nations Day). The General Assembly first met in London on Jan. 10, 1946.

It was decided to locate the UN headquarters in the E United States. In Dec., 1946, the General Assembly accepted the $8.5 million gift of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., to buy a tract of land along the East River, New York City, for its headquarters. The principal buildings there, the Secretariat, the General Assembly, and the Conference Building, were completed in 1952. The Dag Hammarskjöld Memorial Library was dedicated in 1961.

Original Vision and Cold War Realities

In practice the UN has not evolved as was first envisaged. Originally it was composed largely of the Allies of World War II, mainly European countries, Commonwealth countries, and nations of the Americas. It was conceived as an organization of "peace-loving" nations, who were combining to prevent future aggression and for other humanitarian purposes. Close cooperation among members was expected; the Security Council especially was expected to work in relative unanimity. Hopes for essential accord were soon dashed by the frictions of the cold warcold war,
term used to describe the shifting struggle for power and prestige between the Western powers and the Communist bloc from the end of World War II until 1989. Of worldwide proportions, the conflict was tacit in the ideological differences between communism and
..... Click the link for more information. , which affected the functioning of the Security Council and other UN organs.

The charter had envisaged a regular military force available to the Security Council and directed the creation of the Military Staff Committee to make appropriate plans. The committee—consisting of the chiefs of staff (or their deputies) of the Big Five—was unable to reach agreement, with the USSR and the other four states on opposing sides; thus no regular forces were established. The same split frustrated the activities of two special Security Council bodies, the Atomic Energy Commission and the Commission on Conventional Armaments. Hence no arrangements were concluded for regulating the production of atomic bombs or reducing other types of armaments (see disarmament, nucleardisarmament, nuclear,
the reduction and limitation of the various nuclear weapons in the military forces of the world's nations. The atomic bombs dropped (1945) on Japan by the United States in World War II demonstrated the overwhelming destructive potential of nuclear weapons
..... Click the link for more information. ). The charter anticipated that regional security agreements would supplement the overall UN system, but in fact such comprehensive alliances as the North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO), established under the North Atlantic Treaty (Apr. 4, 1949) by Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United States.
..... Click the link for more information. (NATO), the Organization of American StatesOrganization of American States
(OAS), international organization, created Apr. 30, 1948, at Bogotá, Colombia, by agreement of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico,
..... Click the link for more information. , the Southeast Asia Treaty OrganizationSoutheast Asia Treaty Organization
(SEATO), alliance organized (1954) under the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty by representatives of Australia, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States.
..... Click the link for more information. , and the Warsaw Treaty OrganizationWarsaw Treaty Organization
or Warsaw Pact,
alliance set up under a mutual defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, in 1955 by Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union.
..... Click the link for more information. to an extent bypassed the UN system.

There were some early instances of Soviet cooperation with the United States and other powers that allowed for UN successes in restoring or preserving peace. These included the settlement (1946) of the complaint of Syria and Lebanon that France and Great Britain were illegally occupying their territory; the partitioning of Palestine (see IsraelIsrael
, officially State of Israel, republic (2015 est. pop. 8,065,000, including Israelis in occupied Arab territories), 7,992 sq mi (20,700 sq km), SW Asia, on the Mediterranean Sea.
..... Click the link for more information. ); the fighting over Kashmir between India and Pakistan (see India-Pakistan WarsIndia-Pakistan Wars,
name given to the series of conflicts between India and Pakistan since 1947, when the Indian subcontinent was partitioned and the two countries became independent of Great Britain. The most violent outbreaks came in 1947–48, 1965, and 1971.
..... Click the link for more information. ); and the withdrawal of the Dutch from Indonesia. However, in many other issues of more direct importance to the great powers, conflict between the USSR and the remaining members of the Big Five prevented resolution. The Security Council was crippled by the veto, which by the end of 1955 had been used 78 times, 75 of them by the Soviet Union.

Growing Activity of the Assembly

In reaction to the limitations that the cold war imposed on the Security Council, the United States, Britain, France, and other nations tried to develop the General Assembly beyond its original scope. In the assembly the United States and Great Britain had strong support from among the Commonwealth and Latin American countries and generally commanded a majority. The Soviet Union could muster only a smaller bloc, sufficient to create debate between East and West but less effective in voting.

Of more importance were procedures evolved in the Korean crisis in 1950. At that time the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council because of the UN refusal to admit the People's Republic of China as a member. Since the USSR was not present to cast a veto, the Security Council was enabled to establish armed forces to repel the North Korean attack on South Korea (see Korean WarKorean War,
conflict between Communist and non-Communist forces in Korea from June 25, 1950, to July 27, 1953. At the end of World War II, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel into Soviet (North Korean) and U.S. (South Korean) zones of occupation.
..... Click the link for more information. ). Thus, at a time when the young organization had begun to seem politically sterile, it gave birth to the first UN army and to the widest "collective security" action in history up to that time, although the United States provided the bulk of both fighting personnel and matériel. In addition, firmer UN action in future crises was prepared for when, in Nov., 1950, the assembly adopted the "Uniting for Peace" resolution, which permitted it to take its own measures when use of the veto paralyzed the council. Although the assembly has been convened a few times under this resolution, its authority to require action by members has remained vague, and it has never developed workable enforcement machinery.

Some areas were opened for UN intervention, however, where world opinion and great power responsiveness favored it. In the struggle for independence in Morocco, Algeria, and elsewhere, the ruling colonial powers claimed these conflicts to be domestic; with their seats on the Security Council they were in a position to veto assembly resolutions, and with the official governments of rebellious territories under their control they were enabled to forestall UN intervention. In the Hungarian revolt (1956), requests that the USSR withdraw its troops from Hungary and that UN observers be admitted to the country were rejected by the Soviet Union. In the Suez crisis (1956), however, the General Assembly resolution for an immediate cease-fire and for withdrawal of invading forces was heeded by Great Britain, France, and Israel (see Arab-Israeli WarsArab-Israeli Wars,
conflicts in 1948–49, 1956, 1967, 1973–74, and 1982 between Israel and the Arab states. Tensions between Israel and the Arabs have been complicated and heightened by the political, strategic, and economic interests in the area of the great powers.
..... Click the link for more information. ).

Expanding Role of the Secretary-General

Parallel to the growing activity of the assembly was the expanding role of the secretary-general. Trygve Lie, as secretary-general, made vigorous efforts to muster world opinion in such difficulties as the Korean crisis, but his labeling of North Korea as the aggressor earned him Soviet enmity and thus limited his effectiveness. Under the "quiet diplomacy" of Dag Hammarskjöld the secretary-generalship gained greater scope. The secretary-general, not the deadlocked Security Council, was entrusted with organizing and establishing UN forces in the Suez crisis. He worked closely with the General Assembly on other issues. In 1958, when an assembly resolution asking for a strong force of UN observers in Lebanon had been vetoed by the council, the secretary-general nevertheless followed the assembly's recommendation.

Beyond such missions Hammarskjöld interpreted his office as responsible for preserving peace even when the assembly itself was deadlocked and could issue no definite instructions. In practice he operated largely under a General Assembly mandate but frequently took executive steps that could not be completely detailed by instructions. Thus the office of secretary-general was evolving as the UN's de facto executive authority in matters of international conflict, and the Security Council began to meet much less frequently.

Effects of a Growing Membership

By the late 1950s the UN was being revolutionized by a change in membership. Since the inception of the UN there had been a steady growth of feeling that the organization should comprise all the nations of the world. But new membership was long blocked by East-West rivalry; each side was antagonistic to admission of new members unfavorable to its views, and as non-Communist countries outnumbered Communist ones the USSR was especially intransigent. From 1947 to 1955 only Yemen (1947), Pakistan (1947), Myanmar (1948), Israel (1949), and Indonesia (1950) gained admission. The way to a compromise was led by Canada in 1955; 16 new members were admitted in that year, and thereafter expansion was rapid.

Accompanying expansion came voting realignment. The clear majority of the United States and its allies disappeared as the Afro-Asian group of nations (see Third WorldThird World,
the technologically less advanced, or developing, nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, generally characterized as poor, having economies distorted by their dependence on the export of primary products to the developed countries in return for finished products.
..... Click the link for more information. ) obtained over half of the assembly seats. New voting blocs formed, including the NATO nations, the Arab nations, the Commonwealth nations, and, increasingly, a general Afro-Asian bloc. Latin America shifted away from its pro-U.S. position. Other themes began to equal that of the cold war in assembly debates, and more militant stands were taken against remnants of colonialism.

The changed nature of the UN was revealed in UN Africa policy in the early 1960s. The UN acted strongly in the crisis in the CongoCongo, Democratic Republic of the,
formerly Zaïre
, republic (2015 est. pop. 76,197,000), c.905,000 sq mi (2,344,000 sq km), central Africa. It borders on Angola in the southwest and west, on the Atlantic Ocean, Cabinda (an Angolan exclave), and the Republic of
..... Click the link for more information. , and during its involvement there the secretary-general developed his office to an unprecedented extent. When the UN was invited (1960) by the Congo government to send troops there, a UN force was quickly organized by Hammarskjöld from among neutral European and African states. The UN troops, confronted by social and political chaos, engaged in direct military action to force KatangaKatanga
, former province, c.200,000 sq mi (518,000 sq km), SE Congo (Kinshasa); called Shaba from 1971 to 1997. Katanga bordered Angola on the southwest, Zambia on the southeast, and Lake Tanganyika on the east. The capital and chief city was Lubumbashi.
..... Click the link for more information. province to reintegrate with the Congo, which it finally did in 1963.

UN action in the Congo and later in sending peacekeeping forces to Cyprus (1964) demonstrated a willingness to intervene in basically internal situations, both to restore order and to prevent the spread of disorder to neighboring states. This willingness was especially evident in the attention paid to the remaining colonial areas, mainly in Africa. The UN repeatedly condemned the colonial policies of Portugal (until that country began to free its colonies after the 1974 coup) and the racial policies of South Africa and Rhodesia, against which severe economic sanctions were applied.

Diminished UN Influence and Its Uncertain Revival

Having lost its automatic majority in the assembly, the United States joined the Soviet Union in limiting UN power and authority, mainly by keeping major issues within the purview of the Security Council and the veto, with inaction the usual result. There was a corresponding decline in the freedom of movement allowed the secretary-general. In the wake of Hammarskjöld's Congo operation and accidental death, the Soviet Union's "troika" plan for a three-person secretary-generalship—an Eastern, a Western, and a neutralist member, each with a veto—was a sign that the USSR would not tolerate another activist secretary-general. Although its plan was defeated, the USSR's goal was largely achieved, since succeeding secretaries-general avoided actions that might be controversial.

Severe financial pressures have also served to restrict UN action. A number of countries, including the USSR, have refused to pay for UN actions, such as the Congo operation, not directly approved by the Security Council. The United States successfully pushed for a reduction of its assessment to 25% of the UN budget in 1977, instead of one third or more, but has still been in substantial arrears. (By the late 1990s the problem of U.S. arrears had grown so great that the United States was in danger of losing its vote in the General Assembly.)

Finally, the major powers have tended to deal with each other outside the framework of the UN. While certain agreements in peripheral areas of disarmament and international cooperation have been worked out within the UN—e.g., the peaceful use of atomic energy (see Atomic Energy Agency, InternationalAtomic Energy Agency, International (IAEA),
independent intergovernmental organization established in 1957 under the aegis of the United Nations to promote safe, secure, and peaceful uses of atomic energy.
..... Click the link for more information. ), cooperation in outer space, and arms limitation on the international seabed—most major negotiations and agreements have been on a bilateral basis.

As a result, until 1991 the UN played a relatively secondary role in most world crises, including the Arab-Israeli Wars of 1967 and 1973; the India-Pakistan War of 1971; the Vietnam War; and the Afghanistan War. However, with Soviet cooperation, the UN played a major role approving action in the Persian Gulf in 1991 to drive Iraq from Kuwait, and it actively supervised the subsequent cease-fire, embargo, and removal of strategic weapons from Iraq (see Persian Gulf WarPersian Gulf Wars,
two conflicts involving Iraq and U.S.-led coalitions in the late 20th and early 21st cent.

The First Persian Gulf War, also known as the Gulf War, Jan.–Feb.
..... Click the link for more information. ).

Since the early 1970s, the UN expanded its activity in the development of less developed countries. The UN and its related agencies have had a significant impact in disease control, aid to refugees, and technological cooperation. It has provided a mechanism through which developed countries can jointly contribute with a minimum of national antagonism and from which less developed countries can receive aid with a minimum of suspicion and resentment. The UN has also been active in setting standards of human dignity and freedom, such as in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the establishment of international labor standards, and has been a forum for discussion on some environmental issues, such as at the "Earth Summit" in 1992.

The current UN is an all but universal global institution. Its peacekeeping forces were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988, and in 2001 the UN itself, along with Secretary-General Annan, was awarded the prize. Beginning in the 1990s, the UN was increasingly involved in peacekeeping efforts throughout the world. Although the UN played a subsidiary role in the Persian Gulf WarPersian Gulf Wars,
two conflicts involving Iraq and U.S.-led coalitions in the late 20th and early 21st cent.

The First Persian Gulf War, also known as the Gulf War, Jan.–Feb.
..... Click the link for more information. , its potential to gain a more prominent peacekeeping role was enhanced with the end of the cold war. In recent years the UN has supervised the 1993 elections in Cambodia (as part of its largest peacekeeping effort ever) and the 1999 referendum in East Timor (although it could not prevent the violence the followed), and it has mounted peacekeeping operations in Angola, Bosnia, Congo (Kinshasa), Eritrea and Ethiopia, Haiti, Kosovo, Mozambique, Sierra Leone, Somalia, and Sudan and Chad among others. In addition, the UN has provided police forces in regions, such as Kosovo, Bosnia, and East Timor, where the local government could not.

The Security Council's assertiveness in enforcing the Gulf War cease-fire resolutions in the early 1990s seemed indicative of a new vigor. Later divisions on the council over that issue, however, and limited success at times with respect to peacekeeping in Somalia, Bosnia, Haiti, Sierra Leone, and Côte d'Ivore indicate that, unless the parties overseen by such forces are desirous of peace, perhaps the council can assert itself successfully only when the great powers are convinced that their interests are at stake. The fact was made all-too-obvious by the divisions that emerged between the United States and Britain, on one side, and France, Russia, and China over whether to approve military action against Iraq in 2003. Other divisions hampered the UN's ability to develop (2007) a fully workable peacekeeping mission in Sudan and Chad, where rebellion in Sudan's Darfur region and bordering parts of Chad created large numbers of refugees beginning in 2003. On the other hand, the UN peacekeeping mission along the Eritrea-Ethiopia border (2000–2008) was ended after the two benefiting nations undermined it.

In an effort to ensure that UN peacekeeping missions that are mounted are effective, Annan pushed for forces that were large enough to be able to enforce the peace, though that was not always possible. UN peacekeeping forces have also become more assertive about using force to protect themselves and civilians and more active in enforcing the peace. In 2011, in response to fighting in Libya, the Security Council authorized a no-fly zone in Libya to protect civilians and imposed sanctions on the government, but the NATO-Arab mission enforcing the zone also acted at times in apparent support of the rebels, who ultimately overthrew the government. A peace mission to Syria in 2012, which only involved UN observers, was not successful in stemming the Arab SpringArab Spring,
in modern North African and Middle Eastern history, antigovernment demonstrations and uprisings that, from late 2010, swept many of the regions' Arab nations.
..... Click the link for more information. conflict there, and subsequent UN efforts to protect Syrian civilians were marginally successful at best. A UN peacekeeping force was deployed in the Central African Republic in 2014, in response to fighting between Christian and Muslim militias following the overthrow of the government; the force superseded and absorbed an African Union contingent that had been deployed in the country in 2013.

A related and pressing problem has been the financial crisis created by the arrears owed by the United States and other nations, a crisis exacerbated by the expense of increased peacekeeping operations. Even as the nations of the world have been expanding the UN's role as peacekeeper, its ability to fund such operations has been hampered by nonpayment of UN dues. American dissatisfaction with the UN has led to opposition within Congress to payment of UN dues and resulted in unyielding U.S. opposition to the reelection of Boutros-Ghali as secretary-general. Kofi Annan, who succeeded Boutros-Ghali in 1997, worked to streamline UN operations and reduce costs, in part to restore American confidence and interest in the organization. In 1999 the U.S. Congress passed legislation that would pay some of the nation's back dues, but it also called for a further reduction in the assessment that the United States is expected to pay. An agreement in Dec., 2000, called for a reduction in U.S. dues to 22% of the UN's budget. In 2000, U.S. arrears had reached $1.3 billion, according to UN calculations, but by the end of 2004 that had been reduced by more than 80%.

In 2004 the UN's reputation was tarnished by revelations about corruption in the oil-for-food program that allowed Iraq, beginning in 1996 and ending after the U.S.-led invasion, to export oil to generate income that was to be used to purchase food and other humanitarian relief. Saddam Hussein's government received sizable kickbacks through the program (although the money Iraq earned through smuggling oil abroad was much greater), and many outside Iraq illicitly profited as well. A detailed UN investigation into the program, led by Paul VolckerVolcker, Paul Adolph,
1927–, American economist, government official, and banker, b. Cape May, N.J. After working as an under secretary in the Treasury Department (1969–74) and as president of the New York Federal Reserve Bank (1975–79), he was appointed the
..... Click the link for more information. , began in 2004, and it released its final report in 2005. The investigation accused the UN official who had headed the program of personally benefiting from it, and faulted the conduct of others, including two of Annan's close advisers. The integrity of Annan's son, who benefited from employment and payments from a company involved in the program, was questioned, although Annan himself was not accused of benefiting or of manipulating the program to benefit anyone. However, Annan was criticized for having exercised inadequate oversight (as was the Security Council) and for having failed to make a thorough inquiry into the affair when questions first arose about it.

Also in 2005 Annan attempted to win international support for a group of comprehensive reforms within the United Nations, but agreement proved difficult to secure. UN members did approve the establishment of a Peacebuilding Commission, intended to aid war-torn nations in reestablishing political stability and economic growth. In Dec., 2005, under pressure from the United States and other wealthy nations, UN members approved a two-year budget with a spending cap for 2006 that was expected to be reached in June of that year. The intention was to link the approval of further spending to passage of management reforms by the General Assembly.

The General Assembly approved (Mar., 2006) the replacement of the UN Human Rights Commission with a Human Rights Council. The move was designed to restore credibility to the UN's human rights body, which was criticized for having included among its member nations many countries that had been denounced for violations of human rights, but the new body soon faced similar criticisms. In May the Assembly refused to approve the centerpiece of Annan's ambitious administrative reform plans for the United Nations; some modest reforms were approved in July. The budget cap, meanwhile, had been removed in June by the General Assembly.

Annan was succeeded as secretary-general by South Korean diplomat Ban Ki-Moon in 2007; he served for two terms. Ban, who also focused on reforming and restructuring the United Nations, was less of an activist international leader than Annan. Although UN peacekeepers kept the crisis in Côte d'Ivoire from worsening in 2011 and then aided in the installation of the country's internationally recognized president, elsewhere peacekeeping forces had more limited or even negligible effects. In Haiti, UN peacekeepers unintentionally introduced (2010) cholera into the island nation, leading to the deaths of more than 9,000, and the United Nations for a long time denied its forces were the cause. Increasing discord on the Security Council between Russia and Western nations during Ban's tenure especially hampered UN attempts to intervene in the Syrian civil war to save civilian lives. The most notable UN achievement under Ban was most likely the signing of the Paris climate change agreement in 2015, which included the broadest and most far-reaching program so far to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. António Guterres, a former Portuguese premier and UN High Commissioner for Refugees succeeded Ban as secretary-general in 2017.

Bibliography

The United Nations publishes a series of comprehensive yearbooks (1947–). See also M. Waters, The United Nations (1967); L. M. Goodrich, E. I. Hambro, and A. P. Simons, Charter of the United Nations: Commentary and Documents (3d ed. 1969); D. W. Wainhouse, International Peacekeeping at the Crossroads (1973); L. M. Goodrich, The United Nations in a Changing World (1974); D. P. Moynihan, A Dangerous Place (1978); Conference on United Nations Procedures, Global Negotiations and Economic Development (1980); E. Luard, A History of the United Nations (2 vol., 1982–89); J. P. Humphrey, Human Rights and the United Nations (1983); P. R. Baehr and L. Gordenker, The United Nations: Reality and Ideal (1984); Department of Public Information, The United Nations and Human Rights (1984); R. Riggs and J. Plano, The United Nations: International Organization and World Politics (1987); P. J. Fromuth, ed., A Successor Vision: The United Nations of Tomorrow (1988); A. Roberts, United Nations, Divided World: The UN's Role in International Relations (1988); R. Berridge, Return to the United Nations: UN Diplomacy in Regional Conflicts (1991); S. Meisler, United Nations: The First Fifty Years (1995); T. Hoopes and D. Brinkley, FDR and the Creation of the U.N. (1997); S. C. Schlesinger, Act of Creation: The Founding of the United Nations (2003); M. Mazower, No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations (2009); R. Jolly et al., UN Ideas That Changed the World (2009).

United Nations

(Un) an international organization whose main function is to maintain and strengthen international peace and security and to develop cooperation among nations. The principles of the organization’s activities and its structure were worked out during World War II by the principal participants in the anti-Hitler coalition. The most important stages in the creation of the UN were the Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers of the USSR, USA, and Great Britain in 1943, the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944, the Yalta Conference in 1945, and the San Francisco Conference in 1945. At the conference in San Francisco on June 26, 1945, representatives of 50 nations signed the UN Charter; these states and Poland are considered to be the original members of the UN. The Charter came into force on Oct. 24, 1945, after the Soviet Union, the USA, Great Britain, France, China, and most of the other signatories had filed their instruments of ratification. October 24 has been designated as United Nations Day.

As a result of efforts of the USSR and all progressive forces, the UN Charter contains such democratic principles of international cooperation as the sovereign equality of all UN members, the settlement of international disputes by peaceful means, the renunciation in international relations of the threat or use of force in any way inconsistent with the aims of the UN, and nonintervention by the UN in matters that essentially fall under the domestic jurisdiction of a state.

Membership in the UN is open to all peace-loving states that are able and willing to fulfill the obligations of the Charter. States are admitted by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. As of Mar. 1, 1977, the UN had 147 members, including the 51 original members and 87 states admitted to the UN between 1946 and 1976 (see Table 1).

The principal organs of the UN are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat.

The General Assembly has the right to discuss any question within the scope of the Charter or affecting the powers and functions of any UN organ and to make recommendations where this does not conflict with the special powers of the Security Council.

The Security Council bears the main responsibility for maintaining international peace and security, and all UN members

Table 1. Members of the United Nations¹
¹Nation listed without a date was one of the 51 charter members; nations admitted later are listed with their date of admission ²formerly Dahomey ³Until 1971, China’s seat was illegally held by a representative of the Chiang Kai-shek regime on the island of Taiwan; on Oct. 25, 1971, the rights of the People’s Republic of China were restored ⁴Until December 1969 the Republic of the Congo ⁵Until 1963, Malaya ⁶Until 1961, the Union of South Africa ⁷Until 1972, Ceylon ⁸On Dec. 14, 1961, Tanganyika was admitted to the UN, and on Dec. 16, 1963, Zanzibar was admitted. On Apr. 26, 1964, an agreement went into effect uniting Zanzibar with Tanganyika and forming a single state, Tanzania, whose date of entry into the UN is considered Dec. 14, 1961. ⁹Until 1962, the Yemen Mutawakkilite Kingdom ¹⁰Until 1970, the People’s Republic of Southern Yemen ¹¹Until 1964, the Republic of the Congo; until 1971, the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Afghanistan (Nov. 19, 1946)
Albania (Dec. 14, 1955)
Algeria (Oct. 8, 1962)
Angola (Dec. 1, 1976)
Argentina
Australia
Austria (Dec. 14, 1955)
Bahamas (Sept. 18, 1973)
Bahrain (Sept. 21, 1971)
Bangladesh (Sept. 17, 1974)
Barbados (Dec. 9, 1966)
Belgium
Benin² (Sept. 20, 1960)
Bhutan (Sept. 21, 1971)
Bolivia
Botswana (Oct. 17, 1966)
Brazil
Bulgaria (Dec. 14, 1955)
Burma (Apr. 19, 1948)
Burundi (Sep. 18, 1962)
Byelorussian SSR
Cambodia (Kampuchea) (Dec. 14, 1955)
Cameroon (Sept. 20, 1960)
Canada
Cape Verde Islands (Sept. 16, 1975)
Central African Republic (Sept. 20, 1960)
Chad (Sept. 20, 1960)
Chile
China³
Colombia
Comoro Islands (Nov. 12, 1975)
Congo, People’s Republic of the⁴ (Sept. 20, 1960)
Costa Rica
Cuba
Cyprus (Sept. 20, 1960)
Czechoslavakia
Denmark
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea (Nov. 12, 1968)
Ethiopia
Fiji (Oct. 13, 1970)
Finland (Dec. 14, 1955)
France
Gabon (Sept. 20, 1960)
Gambia (Sept. 21, 1965)
German Democratic Republic (Sept. 18, 1973)
Germany, Federal Republic of (Sept 18, 1973)
Ghana (Mar. 8, 1957)
Greece
Grenada (Sept. 17, 1974)
Guatemala
Guinea (Dec. 12, 1958)
Guinea-Bissau (Sept. 17, 1974)
Guyana (Sept. 20, 1966)
Haiti
Honduras
Hungary (Dec. 14, 1955)
Iceland (Nov. 19, 1946)
India
Indonesia (Sept. 28, 1950)
Iran
Iraq
Ireland (Dec. 14, 1955)
Israel (May 11, 1949)
Italy (Dec. 14, 1955)
Ivory Coast (Sept. 20, 1960)
Jamaica (Sept. 18, 1962)
Japan (Dec. 18, 1956)
Jordan (Dec. 14, 1955)
Kenya (Dec. 16, 1963)
Kuwait (May 14, 1963)
Laos (Dec. 14, 1955)
Lebanon
Lesotho (Oct. 17, 1966)
Liberia
Libya (Dec. 14, 1955)
Luxembourg
Malagasy Republic (Sept. 20, 1960)
Malawi (Dec. 1, 1964)
Malaysia⁵ (Sept. 17, 1957)
Maldives (Sept. 21, 1965)
Mali (Sept. 28, 1960)
Malta (Dec. 1, 1964)
Mauritania (Oct. 27, 1961)
Mauritius (Apr. 24, 1968)
Mexico
Mongolian People’s Republic (Oct. 27, 1961)
Morocco (Nov. 12, 1956)
Mozambique (Sept. 16, 1975)
Nepal (Dec. 14, 1955)
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger (Sept. 20, 1960)
Nigeria (Oct. 7, 1960)
Norway
Oman (Oct. 7, 1971)
Pakistan (Sept. 30, 1947)
Panama
Papua New Guinea (Oct. 10, 1975)
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal (Dec. 14, 1955)
Qatar (Sept. 21, 1971)
Rumania (Dec. 14, 1955)
Rwanda (Sept. 18, 1962)
Sāo Tomé and Príncipe (Sept. 16, 1975)
Saudi Arabia Senegal (Sept. 28, 1960)
Seychelles (Sept. 21, 1976)
Sierra Leone (Sept. 27, 1961)
Singapore (Sept. 21, 1965)
Somalia (Sept. 20, 1960)
South Africa⁶
Spain (Dec. 14, 1955)
Sri Lanka⁷ (Dec. 14, 1955)
Sudan (Nov. 12, 1956)
Surinam (Dec. 4, 1975)
Swaziland (Sept. 24, 1968)
Sweden (Nov. 19, 1946)
Syria
Tanzania⁸ (Dec. 14, 1961)
Thailand (Dec. 16, 1946)
Togo (Sept. 20, 1960)
Trinidad and Tobago (Sept. 18, 1962)
Tunisia (Nov. 12, 1956)
Turkey
Uganda (Oct. 25, 1962)
Ukrainian SSR
United Kingdom
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
United Arab Emirates (Dec. 9, 1971)
United States
Upper Volta (Sept. 20, 1960)
Uruguay
Venezuela
Western Samoa (Dec. 15, 1976)
Yemen Arab Republic⁹ (Sept. 30, 1947)
Yemen, People’s Democratic Republic of¹⁰ (Dec. 14, 1967)
Yugoslavia
Zaire¹¹ (Sept. 20, 1960)
Zambia (Dec. 1, 1964)

are required to obey its decisions. It functions according to the principle of unanimity of the permanent members—the USSR, USA, United Kingdom, France, and China.

In accordance with the UN Charter, in cases of a threat to peace, violations of peace, or acts of aggression, when other measures may prove or have proved to be inadequate, the Security Council has the right to take such actions with the armed forces of UN member states placed at its disposal as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security. The Security Council has exclusive jurisdiction over all questions involving the creation and functioning of UN armed forces.

Under the direction of the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council performs UN functions in the sphere of international economic and social cooperation. The Trusteeship Council, also under the authority of the General Assembly, supervises the fulfillment of the main functions of the international trusteeship system by states administering trust territories. The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the UN. The Secretariat is composed of the secretary-general— the UN’s chief administrative official—and an international staff. On Jan. 1, 1972, K. Waldheim of Austria was appointed secretary-general.

Among the large number of UN bodies are the International Law Commission, the Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, the Special Committee on the Situation With Regard to the Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, and the Conference on Trade and Development. Related to the UN by special arrangements are 14 specialized agencies, the International Atomic Energy Agency, and various other organizations. (The structure of the UN is shown in Figure 1.)

The UN headquarters are in New York, and the organization’s official languages are English, French, Spanish, Russian, Arabic, and Chinese.

The work of the UN. The decisions and actions of the UN reflect the evolving balance of forces among the nations of the world and the predominant trends in international affairs. The struggle in the international arena between the forces of socialism and democracy and the forces of aggression and imperialist reaction is also taking place at the UN. Certain positive results achieved by the UN reflect the growing might and international influence of the Soviet Union and the entire socialist community.

Since its founding, the UN has adopted, on the initiative of and through the persistent efforts of the USSR and other socialist countries, a number of important resolutions relating to disarmament and the strengthening of international security. Among them are resolutions on the principles defining the overall regulation and reduction of armaments (1946), on the surrender and punishment of war criminals (1946), on measures against war propaganda (1947), on measures to establish and strengthen peaceful and good-neighbor relations among states (1957 and 1958), and on universal and total disarmament (1959). The USSR and other socialist countries may also be credited with the UN’s adoption of the Declaration on the Inadmissibility of Intervention in the Internal Affairs of States and on the Protection of Their Independence and Sovereignty (1965), the Declaration on the Strengthening of International Security (1970), and the Declaration on the Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation Among States in Accordance

Figure 1. The United Nations, Specialized Agencies, and the International Atomic Energy Agency (as of January 1977)

With the UN Charter (1970). Other measures adopted by the UN through the efforts of the USSR and the other socialist countries include resolutions in favor of convening a world disarmament conference (1971–76), a resolution on the nonuse of force in international relations and the prohibition in perpetuity of the use of nuclear weapons (1972), a resolution on the reduction of the military budgets of the permanent member states of the Security Council by 10 percent and the use of a portion of the funds saved to provide assistance to developing countries (1973), a resolution on a comprehensive nuclear test ban (1975), a resolution on an international treaty prohibiting the development of new types of weapons of mass annihilation (1975), and a resolution on the nonuse of force in international relations (1976). The General Assembly approved the 1963 treaty banning nuclear tests in three environments, the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty, the Seabed Treaty, the Convention on Bacteriological Weapons, and the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques.

The General Assembly’s resolutions directed against colonialism, racism, and national oppression are of great positive significance. These include the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide (1948), the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (1960), the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1963), the Program of Action for the Full Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (1970), and the Convention on a Halt to the Crime of Apartheid and Punishment for It (1973).

The discussion in UN organs of questions relating to the national liberation struggle of peoples and the protection of the national sovereignty of independent states has helped restrain the forces of aggression and international arbitrary behavior. For example, the Security Council played a positive role in the cessation of foreign intervention in Indonesia in 1946–49. The UN provided some assistance in the expulsion of the British-French-Israeli aggressors from Egypt in 1956 and contributed to the abolition of colonial regimes in Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, Cyprus, West Irian, and other parts of the world. Containment of aggressive actions by imperialist forces was facilitated by the Security Council’s discussions of the intervention of the USA and Great Britain in Lebanon and Jordan (1958), of the USA’s hostile actions against Cuba (1960–62), of the threat to Cyprus’ independence and territorial integrity (1964), and of the USA’s intervention in the Dominican Republic (1965). Of great importance are the Security Council’s resolution 242, adopted on Nov. 22, 1967, concerning a political settlement in the Middle East; resolution 338, passed on Oct. 22, 1973, concerning the cessation of hostilities and the establishment of a just and lasting peace in the Middle East; and the 1968 resolution on the establishment of economic sanctions with regard to Southern Rhodesia. However, the forces supporting the aggressors and racist regimes are obstructing the implementation of these decisions.

Useful resolutions and declarations have been worked out and adopted in the economic, social, and legal fields. Among the most important are the resolutions on the inalienable sovereignty of states over their own natural resources (1952, 1962, 1966), the resolutions on democratic land reforms (1954, 1959), the Principles of International Trade Relations and Trade Policy (1964), the Declaration of Social Progress and Development (1969), the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the Convention on the Political Rights of Women (1952), the Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1959), and the Convention on the Inapplicability of the Statute of Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity (1968).

The opponents of détente have resisted the adoption of resolutions aimed at strengthening international peace and security. Until the mid-1950’s the Western powers, relying on the votes of states dependent on them, frequently succeeded in blocking Soviet proposals, for example, the proposal to prohibit atomic weapons and reduce armed forces and armaments (1948) and the proposal for a pact among the five powers to strengthen peace (1949). The Western powers also succeeded in putting through resolutions dictated by the interests of imperialist policy. The UN flag was used to cover up American aggression in Korea in 1950, and attempts were made to abolish the principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the Security Council and to transfer the powers of that body to the General Assembly (the General Assembly’s resolution Uniting for Peace, 1950).

The change in the world’s balance of forces in favor of socialism led to a substantial improvement in the situation at the UN. In December 1955 the Western powers’ resistance to the admission of a number of socialist states to the UN was broken. Moreover, in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s a large group of new African and Asian states joined the UN, and they have supported important decisions aimed at strengthening world peace and security. Whereas in the 1950’s and 1960’s the Western powers had sometimes managed to use the UN to promote policies hostile to the socialist states and to defend their colonial interests, for example, the discussion of the Hungarian question in 1956 and the UN operation in the Congo in 1960–64, by the mid-1960’s they increasingly found themselves in the minority during discussions of important political questions.

Despite its shortcomings and weaknesses, the UN has contributed to the realization of the aims and principles proclaimed in its Charter. The highly important decisions it has adopted on the initiative of the USSR and other socialist countries have promoted the strengthening of world peace and security. The UN has helped defuse a number of acute international crises. Détente has given the UN a greater opportunity to wield a positive influence on international developments. The Soviet Union and the other countries of the socialist community support the UN as an important instrument for assisting the settlement of current international political problems and advocate an increase in its effectiveness and authority, based on rigorous compliance with the UN Charter.

PUBLICATION

Organizatsiia Ob”edinennykh Natsii: Sb. dokumentov. Moscow, 1956.

REFERENCES

Krylov, S. B. Istoriia sozdaniia Organizatsii Ob”edinennykh Natsii [2d ed.]. Moscow, 1960.
Morozov, G. I. Organizatsiia Ob”edinennykh Natsii. Moscow, 1962.
Sovetskii Soiuz v Organizatsii Ob”edinennykh Natsii, vols. 1–2. Moscow, 1965.
Sovetskii Soiuz i Organizatsiia Ob”edinennykh Natsii (1961–1965 gg.). Moscow, 1968.
OON i mezhdunarodnoe ekonomicheskoe sotrudnichestvo. Moscow, 1970.
OON: itogi, tendentsii, perspektivy. Moscow, 1970.
Sovetskii Soiuz i Organizatsiia Ob”edinennykh Natsii, 1966–1970 gg. Moscow, 1975.
Shkunaev, V. G. Organizatsiia Ob”edinnykh Natsii v sovremennom mire. Moscow, 1976.
Goodrich, L. M., and E. Hambro. Charter of the United Nations, 2nd ed. Boston, 1949.
Kelsen, H. The Law of the United Nations. London, 1951.
Goodrich, L. M., and A. P. Simons. The United Nations and Maintenance of International Peace and Security. Washington, 1955.

V. V. LOZINSKII

United Nations

a term commonly used to designate the states that were members of the anti-Hitler coalition during World War II and that created the United Nations Organization in 1945. In written works and in official publications, the term is also used to denote the United Nations Organization.

United Nations

world organization for international discussion and peacekeeping. [World Hist.: Brewer Dictionary, 1116]See: Cooperation

United Nations

1. an international organization of independent states, with its headquarters in New York City, that was formed in 1945 to promote peace and international cooperation and security 2. (in World War II) a coalition of 26 nations that signed a joint declaration in Jan. 1942, pledging their full resources to defeating the Axis powers
www.unsystem.org

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noun an organization of independent states formed in 1945 to promote international peace and security

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