| 释义 |
contra-, prefix
The L. adv. and prep. contrā (see prec.) came to be used in composition; this use, rare in cl. L., was much extended in late L. and Romanic. In the modern Romanic langs., the prefix retains the L. form, except in Fr., where it has duly become contre-. In words taken into English from OF., this became counter-, which is the predominant form of the prefix: contre- appears in a few non-naturalized words from modern French. But in words derived directly from L. or It., or formed after these, contra- is retained, with the following uses:
1. In L. contrā, construed adverbially with certain verbs, tended at length to be written in combination, as contrā dīcere, later contrādīcere, ‘to speak on the opposite side’, hence ‘to speak in opposition (to a statement or person)’, and so ‘to contradict’; contrā-pōnere to place on the opposite side, to counterpose; contrā-scrībere to write opposite, to countersign; contrā-venīre to come in the opposite direction, oppose, whence to contravene. The later tendency has been to treat the prefix prepositionally, so making the compound transitive. Verbs and esp. verbal derivatives of this type are numerous in English: cf. contra-acting, -distinguish, -divide, -colluctation, -rotation, etc.
2. In late or med.L. contra- was used in prepositional combination with an object, as in contrājūris = Gr. παράνοµος, contrary to law. This was much developed in Romanic, and extended to the formation of ns., e.g. in 16th c. It. contrabando that which is against proclamation or statute, contraband, contrapelo what goes against the hair or grain, contrastomaco, etc. Eng. has several adjs. so formed, and some ns., as contra-civil, -focal, -rational, -regular, -scriptural, contraregularity, etc.
3. contra- is used in Romanic to indicate a thing made or acting against, in opposition to, in reply to, or as a substitute for, another of the same kind. Probably these were orig. akin to class 1, but in course of time some of them tended to the notion of class 2: cf. 16th c. It. contralettera reply or opposition-letter, contramuro an opposition wall, contramina an opposition mine, contrascarpa a counterscarp, and many terms belonging to attack and defence; contramaestro the master's mate in a ship, contratossico, contraveleno counterpoison, antidote; cf. contra-approach, -proposal, -remonstrance, etc.; but the ordinary Eng. repr. is counter.
4. In It. contra is used esp. in musical terms, perh. starting from contrapunto counterpoint (which in its general sense belonged to 2 or 3). Thus contrabasso, contralto, contratenore, parts marked on the stave alongside of (above or below) and opposite to the basso, alto, tenore, etc.
In the names of musical instruments and of organ-stops it denotes a pitch of an octave below; as in contrabass; contrafagotto, the double bassoon, also an organ reed-stop of similar tone; contra-bourdon, contra-gamba, contra-hautboy, contra-posaune, names of organ-stops an octave lower than the ordinary bourdon, gamba, etc.; so contra-octave, the 16 ft. octave of the organ, or the corresponding octave on other instruments.
1877Stainer Organ iii, Stops..Contra Hautboy..Contra Posaune..Contra Bourdon. 1880Grove's Dict. Mus. I. 153/2 Beethoven never fails to employ it [the bassoon] largely, reinforcing it in some works by the contrafagotto. 1881C. A. Edwards Organs 156 [The] Contra Gamba is a 16 ft. open metal stop. 1885Athenæum 7 Mar. 319/3 The part was..played on a tuba, but a contrafagotto would..have more nearly approximated to the effect intended.
(In mod.It., a single consonant following contra is doubled, e.g. contrabbando, contrabbasso, contrappunto, contrammina, etc. In dealing with the words historically, the older 16–17th c. spelling, being that which came into contact with Eng., has been used.) |