| 释义 |
composition
com·po·si·tion C0533800 (kŏm′pə-zĭsh′ən)n.1. a. The combining of distinct parts or elements to form a whole.b. The manner in which such parts are combined or related.c. General makeup: the changing composition of the electorate.d. The result or product of composing; a mixture or compound.2. Arrangement of artistic parts so as to form a unified whole.3. a. The art or act of composing a musical or literary work.b. A work of music, literature, or art, or its structure or organization.4. A short essay, especially one written as an academic exercise.5. Law A settlement whereby the creditors of a debtor about to enter bankruptcy agree, in return for some financial consideration, usually proffered immediately, to the discharge of their respective claims on receipt of payment which is in a lesser amount than that actually owed on the claim.6. Linguistics The formation of compounds from separate words.7. Printing Typesetting.
[Middle English composicioun, from Old French composition, from Latin compositiō, compositiōn-, from compositus, past participle of compōnere, to put together; see component.]
com′po·si′tion·al adj.com′po·si′tion·al·ly adv.composition (ˌkɒmpəˈzɪʃən) n1. the act of putting together or making up by combining parts or ingredients2. something formed in this manner or the resulting state or quality; a mixture3. the parts of which something is composed or made up; constitution4. (Music, other) a work of music, art, or literature5. (Literary & Literary Critical Terms) a work of music, art, or literature6. (Art Terms) a work of music, art, or literature7. (Art Terms) the harmonious arrangement of the parts of a work of art in relation to each other and to the whole8. (Education) a piece of writing undertaken as an academic exercise in grammatically acceptable writing; an essay9. (Printing, Lithography & Bookbinding) printing the act or technique of setting up type10. (Linguistics) linguistics the formation of compound words11. (Logic) logic the fallacy of inferring that the properties of the part are also true of the whole, as every member of the team has won a prize, so the team will win a prize12. (Law) a. a settlement by mutual consent, esp a legal agreement whereby the creditors agree to accept partial payment of a debt in full settlementb. the sum so agreed13. (Chemistry) chem the nature and proportions of the elements comprising a chemical compound[C14: from Old French, from Latin compositus; see composite, -ion] ˌcompoˈsitional adj ˌcompoˈsitionally advcom•po•si•tion (ˌkɒm pəˈzɪʃ ən)
n. 1. the manner of being composed; arrangement or combination of parts or elements. 2. the parts or elements of which something is composed; makeup; constitution. 3. the act of combining parts or elements to form a whole. 4. the resulting state or product. 5. an aggregate material formed from two or more substances. 6. a short essay written as a school exercise. 7. the act or process of producing a literary work. 8. a piece of music. 9. the act or art of composing music. 10. the organization or grouping of the different parts of a work of art so as to achieve a unified whole. 11. the process of forming compound words. 12. a settlement by mutual agreement. 13. a. the setting up of type for printing. b. the makeup of pages for printing. [1350–1400; Middle English (< Anglo-French) < Latin compositiō=composi-, variant s. of compōnere (see component) + -tiō -tion] com`po•si′tion•al, adj. com`po•si′tion•al•ly, adv. Composition an aggregate; a mixture; objects or persons of different natures associated together.compositionThe organization of the parts of a work into a unified whole.Thesaurus| Noun | 1. | composition - the spatial property resulting from the arrangement of parts in relation to each other and to the whole; "harmonious composition is essential in a serious work of art"composingplacement, arrangement - the spatial property of the way in which something is placed; "the arrangement of the furniture"; "the placement of the chairs" | | 2. | composition - the way in which someone or something is composedphysical composition, make-up, makeup, constitutionproperty - a basic or essential attribute shared by all members of a class; "a study of the physical properties of atomic particles"structure - the manner of construction of something and the arrangement of its parts; "artists must study the structure of the human body"; "the structure of the benzene molecule"phenotype - what an organism looks like as a consequence of the interaction of its genotype and the environmentgenetic constitution, genotype - the particular alleles at specified loci present in an organismtexture, grain - the physical composition of something (especially with respect to the size and shape of the small constituents of a substance); "breadfruit has the same texture as bread"; "sand of a fine grain"; "fish with a delicate flavor and texture"; "a stone of coarse grain"karyotype - the appearance of the chromosomal makeup of a somatic cell in an individual or species (including the number and arrangement and size and structure of the chromosomes) | | 3. | composition - a mixture of ingredientsmixture - (chemistry) a substance consisting of two or more substances mixed together (not in fixed proportions and not with chemical bonding)paste - any mixture of a soft and malleable consistencyambrosia, beebread - a mixture of nectar and pollen prepared by worker bees and fed to larvaecompost - a mixture of decaying vegetation and manure; used as a fertilizersoup - any composition having a consistency suggestive of soup | | 4. |  composition - a musical work that has been created; "the composition is written in four movements"musical composition, opus, piece of music, piecemorceau - a short literary or musical compositionsheet music - a musical composition in printed or written form; "she turned the pages of the music as he played"music - an artistic form of auditory communication incorporating instrumental or vocal tones in a structured and continuous mannermusical arrangement, arrangement - a piece of music that has been adapted for performance by a particular set of voices or instrumentsrealisation, realization - a musical composition that has been completed or enriched by someone other than the composercoda, finale - the closing section of a musical compositionintermezzo - a short piece of instrumental music composed for performance between acts of a drama or operaallegro - a musical composition or musical passage to be performed quickly in a brisk lively mannerallegretto - a musical composition or musical passage to be performed at a somewhat quicker tempo than andante but not as fast as allegroandante - a musical composition or musical passage to be performed moderately slowintroit - a composition of vocal music that is appropriate for opening church servicessolo - a musical composition for one voice or instrument (with or without accompaniment)duette, duo, duet - a musical composition for two performerstrio - a musical composition for three performersquartette, quartet - a musical composition for four performersquintet, quintette - a musical composition for five performerssextet, sextette, sestet - a musical composition written for six performersseptette, septet - a musical composition written for seven performersoctette, octet - a musical composition written for eight performersbagatelle - a light piece of music for pianodivertimento, serenade - a musical composition in several movements; has no fixed formcanon - a contrapuntal piece of music in which a melody in one part is imitated exactly in other partsetude - a short composition for a solo instrument; intended as an exercise or to demonstrate technical virtuosityidyl, pastoral, pastorale, idyll - a musical composition that evokes rural lifetoccata - a baroque musical composition (usually for a keyboard instrument) with full chords and rapid elaborate runs in a rhythmically free stylefantasia - a musical composition of a free form usually incorporating several familiar themesmusical passage, passage - a short section of a musical compositionmovement - a major self-contained part of a symphony or sonata; "the second movement is slow and melodic"largo - (music) a composition or passage that is to be performed in a slow and dignified mannerlarghetto - (music) a composition or passage played in a slow tempo slightly faster than largo but slower than adagiosuite - a musical composition of several movements only loosely connectedsymphonic poem, tone poem - an orchestral composition based on literature or folk talesmedley, pastiche, potpourri - a musical composition consisting of a series of songs or other musical pieces from various sourcesnocturne, notturno - a pensive lyrical piece of music (especially for the piano)adagio - (music) a composition played in adagio tempo (slowly and gracefully); "they played the adagio too quickly"song, vocal - a short musical composition with words; "a successful musical must have at least three good songs"study - a composition intended to develop one aspect of the performer's technique; "a study in spiccato bowing"capriccio - an instrumental composition that doesn't adhere to rules for any specific musical form and is played with improvisationmotet - an unaccompanied choral composition with sacred lyrics; intended to be sung as part of a church service; originated in the 13th centuryprogram music, programme music - musical compositions intended to evoke images or remind the listener of eventsincidental music - music composed to accompany the action of a drama or to fill intervals between scenes | | 5. | composition - musical creationcomposingcreating by mental acts - the act of creating something by thinkingarranging, transcription, arrangement - the act of arranging and adapting a piece of musicrealisation, realization - the completion or enrichment of a piece of music left sparsely notated by a composerrecapitulation - (music) the repetition of themes introduced earlier (especially when one is composing the final part of a movement) | | 6. |  composition - the act of creating written works; "writing was a form of therapy for him"; "it was a matter of disputed authorship"authorship, penning, writingverbal creation - creating something by the use of speech and languageadoxography - fine writing in praise of trivial or base subjects; "Elizabethan schoolboys were taught adoxography, the art of eruditely praising worthless things"; "adoxography is particularly useful to lawyers"drafting - writing a first version to be filled out and polished laterdramatisation, dramatization - conversion into dramatic form; "the play was a dramatization of a short story"fabrication, fictionalisation, fictionalization - writing in a fictional formhistoriography - the writing of historymetrification - writing a metrical composition (or the metrical structure of a composition)novelisation, novelization - converting something into the form of a novelredaction - the act of putting something in writinglexicography - the act of writing dictionariesversification - the art or practice of writing verseindite, pen, write, compose - produce a literary work; "She composed a poem"; "He wrote four novels"write about, write of, write on - write about a particular topic; "Snow wrote about China"profile - write about; "The author of this article profiles a famous painter"paragraph - write paragraphs; work as a paragrapherdash off, fling off, scratch off, toss off, knock off - write quickly; "She dashed off a note to her husband saying she would not be home for supper"; "He scratched off a thank-you note to the hostess"rewrite - rewrite so as to make fit to suit a new or different purpose; "re-write a play for use in schools"write copy - write for commercial publications; "She writes copy for Harper's Bazaar"dramatise, dramatize, adopt - put into dramatic form; "adopt a book for a screenplay"draft, outline - draw up an outline or sketch for something; "draft a speech"author - be the author of; "She authored this play"co-author - be a co-author on (a book, a paper)ghostwrite, ghost - write for someone else; "How many books have you ghostwritten so far?"annotate, footnote - add explanatory notes to or supply with critical comments; "The scholar annotated the early edition of a famous novel"reference, cite - refer to; "he referenced his colleagues' work"write out, write up - put into writing; write in complete form; "write out a contract"script - write a script for; "The playwright scripted the movie" | | 7. |  composition - art and technique of printing with movable typetypographyprinting process, printing - reproduction by applying ink to paper as for publication | | 8. | composition - an essay (especially one written as an assignment); "he got an A on his composition"paper, theme, reportessay - an analytic or interpretive literary compositionterm paper - a composition intended to indicate a student's progress during a school term | | 9. | composition - something that is created by arranging several things to form a unified whole; "he envied the composition of their faculty"creation - an artifact that has been brought into existence by someonepaste-up - a composition of flat objects pasted on a board or other backing; "they showed him a paste-up of the book jacket" |
compositionnoun1. design, form, structure, make-up, organization, arrangement, constitution, formation, layout, configuration Materials of different composition absorb and reflect light differently.2. creation, work, piece, production, opus, masterpiece, chef-d'oeuvre (French) Bach's compositions are undoubtedly among the greatest ever written.3. essay, writing, study, exercise, treatise, literary work Write a composition on the subject `What I Did on My Holidays'.4. arrangement, balance, proportion, harmony, symmetry, concord, consonance, placing Let us study the composition of this painting.5. creation, making, production, fashioning, formation, putting together, invention, compilation, formulation These plays are arranged in order of their composition.Quotations
"At school, composition tests your stamina, whereas translation requires intelligence. But in later life you can scoff at those who did well in composition" [Gustave Flaubert The Dictionary of Received Ideas]compositionnoun1. Something that is the result of creative effort:opus, piece, production, work.2. A relatively brief discourse written especially as an exercise:essay, paper, theme.3. Law. A settlement of differences through mutual concession:accommodation, arrangement, compromise, give-and-take, medium, settlement.Translationscompose (kəmˈpəuz) verb1. to form by putting parts together. A word is composed of several letters. 組成 组成2. to write (eg music, poetry etc). Mozart began to compose when he was six years old. 創作 创作3. to control (oneself) after being upset. 使平靜 使安定comˈposed adjective (of people) quiet and calm. She looked quite composed. 泰然自若的 镇静自若的comˈposer noun a writer, especially of a piece of music. 作曲者 作曲者composition (kompəˈziʃən) noun1. something composed, eg music. his latest composition. (音樂等)作品 （音乐等）作品 2. the act of composing. the difficulties of composition. 寫作 写作3. an essay written as a school exercise. The children had to write a composition about their holiday. 作文 作文4. the parts of which a thing is made. Have you studied the composition of the chemical? 組成 组成comˈposure (-ʒə) noun calmness. I admired her composure. 沉著，鎮靜 沉著，镇静 composition
composition, in art, the organization of forms and colors within the work of art. In traditional sculpture this means the arrangement of masses and planes. In representational painting it means the grouping of forms on a two-dimensional plane in depth. In abstract painting forms are generally composed on planes parallel to the picture surface. In illusionistic works (see illusionismillusionism,
in art, a kind of visual trickery in which painted forms seem to be real. It is sometimes called trompe l'oeil [Fr.,=fool the eye]. The development of one-point perspective in the Renaissance advanced illusionist technique immeasurably.
..... Click the link for more information. ) with advanced perspectiveperspective,
in art, any method employed to represent three-dimensional space on a flat surface or in relief sculpture. Although many periods in art showed some progressive diminution of objects seen in depth, linear perspective, in the modern sense, was probably first
..... Click the link for more information. , forms are arranged to accord with the laws of depth perception.
composition, in ancient and medieval law, a sum of money paid by a guilty party as satisfaction to the family of the person who was injured or killed. Failure to make the payment might justify retaliation in kind against the offender or his family. In earliest times, the payment was made as a result of a mutual agreement between the parties, but later it was imposed by law. In many societies the amount paid varied according to the rank of the person injured or slain. Composition reflected a transition from a system of feuds or blood revenge (see vendettavendetta
[Ital.,=vengeance], feud between members of two kinship groups to avenge a wrong done to a relative. Although the term originated in Corsica, the custom has also been practiced in other parts of Italy, in other European countries, and among the Arabs.
..... Click the link for more information. ) to one where socially dangerous acts are primarily a concern of the state rather than of private persons and their families alone. The exaction of the payment recognized the outrage to the person and the family as the prime offense, but it tended to discourage disorder by providing a substitute for retributive killing or other violence. When, in addition to composition, a fine had to be paid to the state, the dangerous act approached the modern conception of a crime (see criminal lawcriminal law,
the branch of law that defines crimes, treats of their nature, and provides for their punishment. A tort is a civil wrong committed against an individual; a crime, on the other hand, is regarded as an offense committed against the public, even though only one
..... Click the link for more information. ). This institution was known in all Germanic cultures, including Anglo-Saxon England, and was widespread in many parts of the world. It is still practiced in certain Middle Eastern countries. An example of composition is wergild [Old Eng.,=man's price], the payment made by a murderer to the family of a murdered person. Wergild was often paid to the king for loss of a subject and to the lord of the manor for the loss of a vassal as well as to the family of the deceased. The term composition is also used to refer to an agreement between an insolvent debtor and his creditor, whereby the creditor for some consideration, such as an immediate payment of a portion of the debt, waives the remainder and considers his claim satisfied.compositionThe combining of various elements into proper position; to form an entity in terms of structure or organization. See also: designComposition (1) The construction of a work of art, which is conditioned by the content, character, and intent of the work and which to a large extent determines the perception of the work. Composition is the basic organizing element of an artistic form. Imparting unity and wholeness to a work, it coordinates parts with each other and with the whole. The laws of composition, formed during the process of artistic creation and the aesthetic perception of reality, represent to some extent a reflection and generalization of the lawlike regularities and interrelations of the phenomena of the real world. These lawlike regularities and interrelations are artistically transformed; the degree and character of their transformation and generalization are determined by several factors, including the type of art and the idea and subject matter of the work. Literary composition is the organization—specifically, the arrangement and interrelation—of the diverse components of a written work. It includes the arrangement and correlation of characters (composition as a system of characters), events and actions (composition of the plot), inserted tales and lyrical digressions (composition of elements outside of the plot), methods of narration (narrative composition proper), and details of setting, behavior, and emotions (composition of details). There are many devices and methods of composition. Events, commonplace objects, facts, and details that appear in disparate parts of the text may prove to be of artistic significance when taken together. A major aspect of composition is succession, or the order in which components appear in the text. Succession is the temporal organization of a literary work, or the unveiling and unfolding of the artistic content. Composition also includes the mutual correlation of the various facets of literary form (such structural concepts as planes, layers, and levels). Many contemporary theorists use the word “structure” as a synonym for composition. Representing “an endless labyrinth of couplings” (L. N. Tolstoy, O literature, 1955, p. 156), composition completes the complex unity and wholeness of a work, consummating an artistic form that already is rich in content. “Composition is the disciplining force and organizer of a work. It has the task of making sure that nothing goes astray but becomes part of a whole, fulfilling the aims of the author.... For this reason composition usually has neither logical conclusion and coordination nor simple lifelike succession, although it can parallel it; its aim is to arrange all the pieces in such a way that they come together in a complete expression of the idea” (Teoriia literatury [book 3] 1965, p. 425). Every work combines general methods of composition that are typical of a particular kind, genre, or tendency with individual methods peculiar to a particular writer or work. Examples of general methods of composition are thrice-repeated motifs in folk tales, recognition and aposiopesis in adventure stories, the rigid strophic form of the sonnet, and slow development in the epic and drama. An example of a method peculiar to an individual writer occurs in L. N. Tolstoy’s Hadji Murad, in which the major principle in the composition of characters is polarity, including the ostensible polarity between Nicholas I and Shamil. In the contemporary study of literature the use of the term “composition” is more limited. In this sense an individual segment of a text functions as an element of composition, in which a particular method of representation is used, such as ongoing narration, descriptive passages, characterization, dialogue, or lyric digression. The most basic elements of composition combine to form more complex components (complete portrait sketches, descriptions of emotional states, and recollections of conversations). In an epic or drama the scene is an even more important and independent component. In the epic it may consist of several forms of representation (description, narration, or monologue). A portrait, landscape, or interior may be included in the scene; however, throughout its entire course one perspective is maintained and a definite point of view is upheld (the author’s, a character’s, or an outside narrator’s). Each scene may be presented as seen solely through the eyes of a particular person. Thus, composition comprises the combination, interaction, and unity of the forms of narration and definite points of view. Composition of poetry, particularly of lyrical verse, is unique. It is distinguished by strict proportionality and interaction of the rhythmical and metrical units (foot, line, and stanza), syntax and intonations, and the elements that directly convey meaning (themes, motifs, and images). In 20th-century literature, composition has become especially important. This new importance was reflected in the emergence of the montage, which was initially introduced in motion pictures and later was used in theater and literature. In the plastic arts, composition unifies the individual elements involved in the construction of an artistic form (real or illusory representation of space and volume, symmetry and asymmetry, scale, rhythm and proportions, shading and contrast, perspective, arrangement of figures, and color solution). Composition organizes the internal structure of a work and determines the relationship of the work with its surroundings and with the viewer. Composition in architecture has as its bases the harmonious correlation of conceptual and artistic principles, function, engineering, and considerations of urban design. Composition determines the appearance, the layout, and the interrelationship of mass and void in a whole city, in a complex of buildings, or in an individual structure. When the principles of composition are integrated with and artistically reflected in the principles of construction, they represent the structural interrelationship of load and support, or the architectonics of the structures. In the fine arts, composition is the working out of the idea and theme of a work, the arrangement of objects and figures in space, and the correlation of forms, light and shade, and areas of color. There are various types of composition. In a stable composition the basic compositional axes intersect at right angles in the geometric center of a work. In a dynamic composition the basic axes intersect at acute angles; diagonals, circles, and ovals are the predominant forms. An open composition is characterized by centrifugal forces of diverse directions, which cause the viewer to focus upon the entire representation. In a closed composition, centripetal forces prevail, pulling the viewer’s attention toward the center of the work. Stable and closed compositions were prevalent in the art of the Renaissance. Dynamic and open compositions were typical in the art of the baroque period. Throughout the history of art important roles have been played by the formation of generally accepted compositional canons (for example, in ancient Oriental, early medieval, High Renaissance, and classicist art) and by the movement away from traditional and rigid conventions toward freer methods of composition. In the 19th and 20th centuries, artists strove for freer composition to express their creative individuality. (2) A work of music, painting, sculpture, or graphic art; the end result of the creative labor of a composer or artist. (3) A complex work of art incorporating different types of art (for example, a literary-musical composition). (4) The composing of music. In institutions of music education (schools and conservatories), composition is taught as a special subject. The teaching of composition is closely connected with the study of various aspects of music theory, such as harmony, polyphony, instrumentation, and analysis of musical works. REFERENCESZhirmunskii, V. M. Kompozitsiia liricheskikh stikhotvorenii. Petrograd, 1921.
Tomashevskii, B. Teoriia literatury: Poetika, 6th ed. Moscow-Leningrad, 1931.
Alpatov, M. V. Kompozitsiia v zhivopisi. Moscow-Leningrad, 1940.
Teoriia literatury [book 2], Moscow, 1964, pp. 433–34; [book 3] Moscow, 1965, pp. 422–2.
Lotman, Iu. M. Struktura khudozhestvennogo teksta. Moscow, 1970.
Lotman, Iu. M. Analiz poeticheskogo teksta. Leningrad, 1972.
Uspenskii, B. Poetika kompozitsii. Moscow, 1970.
Timofeev, L. I. Osnovy teorii literatury. Moscow, 1971.
Schmarsow, A. Kompositionsgesetze in der Kunst des Mittelalters, vols. 1–2. Bonn-Leipzig, 1920–22.V. E. KHALIZEV and V. S. TURCHIN
Composition (in mathematics), a general term for an operation that forms from two elements a and b a third element c = a *b. For example, the function h(x) = f[g(x)] is the composition of the two functions f(x) and g(x). In mathematical analysis and probability theory certain other means of forming a third function h(x) = f(x) *g(x) from two functions f(x) and g(x) are termed composition; for example: 
Composition a means of word-formation. Unlike derivation, in which words are formed by means of affixes and phonetic gradations, composition involves joining words with full lexical meanings or the stems of such words into a complex whole—a compound word. Composition is also that branch of word-formation devoted to the analysis, description, and classification of compound words. Composition may have a syntactic character when it reflects the models of syntactic constructions to the greatest extent possible, as in the case of the English “blackboard” and the German tiefblau (“dark blue”). It may have a morphological character when special morphologic means are employed and there are no direct parallels in syntax, as with the Russian vertolet (“helicopter”). It may be of mixed morphological and syntactic character when both these features are combined, as with the Russian senokos (“hay mowing”) and listopad (“the falling of leaves”). composition[‚käm·pə′zish·ən] (chemistry) The elements or compounds making up a material or produced from it by analysis. (graphic arts) The act of composing or combining type for printing, either by hand or by machine. (mathematics) The composition of two mappings, ƒ and g, denoted g ° ƒ, where the domain of g includes the range of ƒ, is the mapping which assigns to each element x in the domain of ƒ the element g (y), where y = ƒ(x). addition (mechanics) The determination of a force whose effect is the same as that of two or more given forces acting simultaneously; all forces are considered acting at the same point. composition1. a work of music, art, or literature 2. the harmonious arrangement of the parts of a work of art in relation to each other and to the whole 3. a piece of writing undertaken as an academic exercise in grammatically acceptable writing; an essay 4. Logic the fallacy of inferring that the properties of the part are also true of the whole, as every member of the team has won a prize, so the team will win a prize 5. a. a settlement by mutual consent, esp a legal agreement whereby the creditors agree to accept partial payment of a debt in full settlement b. the sum so agreed 6. Chem the nature and proportions of the elements comprising a chemical compound composition (1)function composition.composition (2)typesetting.composition
com·po·si·tion (kom'pō-zish'ŭn), chemistry the kinds and numbers of atoms constituting a molecule. [L. compono, to arrange] composition Vox populi 1. That of which a thing is composed or formed. See Base composition.2. La-la-la-la-la-la etc, á la Mozart.composition
Supreme Court of the United StatesThe Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court. Although it was explicitly recognized in Article III of the Constitution, it was not formally established until passage of the Judiciary Act of 1789 (1 Stat. 73) and was not organized until 1790. Though its size and jurisdiction have changed over time, the Supreme Court has fulfilled its two main functions: acting as the final interpreter of state and federal law and establishing procedural rules for the federal courts. Composition The Supreme Court, sometimes called the High Court, is comprised of a chief justice and eight associate justices. Article III provides that the justices of the Court are to be appointed by the president of the United States with the advice and consent of the Senate. Once appointed, a justice may not be removed from office except by congressional Impeachment. Because of this provision, many justices have remained on the bench into their eighties. In 1789 the Court initially consisted of six members, but membership was increased to seven in 1807. In 1837 an eighth and ninth justice were added, and in 1863 the number rose to ten. Congress lowered the number to eight to prevent President Andrew Johnson from appointing anyone, and since 1869 the Court has consisted of nine justices. The only modern attempt to alter the size of the Court occurred in 1937, when President franklin d. roosevelt attempted to "pack" the Court by trying to add justices more sympathetic to his political ideals. Between 1935 and 1937, the Supreme Court struck down as unconstitutional numerous pieces of Roosevelt's New Deal program that attempted to regulate the national economy. Most of the conservative judges who voted against the New Deal statutes were over the age of 70. Roosevelt proposed that justices be allowed to retire at age 70 with full pay. Any judge who declined this offer would be forced to have an assistant with full voting rights. This plan was met with hostility by Democrats and Republicans and ultimately rejected as an act of political interference. When the office of chief justice is vacant, the president may choose the new chief justice from among the associate justices but does not need to do so. Whenever the chief justice is unable to perform his or her duties or the office is vacant, the associate justice who has been on the Court the longest performs the duties. The Court can take official action with as few as six members joining in deliberation. However, extremely important cases will sometimes be postponed until all nine justices can participate. Court Term The Court sits in Washington, D.C., and begins its term on the first Monday in October of each year. It may also hold adjourned terms or special terms whenever required. These special calendars are reserved for emergency matters that usually occur when the Court is in recess between July and October. Between October and June 30 of the following year, the Court hears oral arguments for each case in its courtroom, confers and votes on the case, and then assigns a justice to write the majority opinion. An opinion must be released on every case by the end of the Court's term. However, if the Court cannot agree on how to resolve a case, it may hold the case over until the next term and schedule further oral arguments. Administration of the Court The law provides for the appointment of a clerk of the Supreme Court, a deputy clerk, a marshal, a court reporter, a librarian, judicial law clerks, secretaries to the justices, and an administrative assistant to help with court management. The law provides for the printing of Supreme Court decisions to ensure that they will be available to the public. The Court also disseminates its opinions electronically through its website. In addition, it posts its court calendar, docket, and orders on its website. Jurisdiction The Judiciary Act of 1789 gave the Supreme Court authority to hear certain appeals brought from the lower federal courts and the state courts. The Court was also given power to issue various kinds of orders, or writs, to enforce its decisions. Article III of the Constitution declares that the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction "[i]n all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party…" Original juris diction is the authority to hear a case from the outset. Nevertheless, Congress has enacted legislation giving the district courts concurrent jurisdiction in cases dealing with ambassadors and foreign consul as well as in cases between the U.S. government and one or more state governments. The Supreme Court retains exclusive jurisdiction only in suits between state governments, which often involve boundary disputes. These cases arise infrequently and are usually placed before special masters who hear the evidence, make findings, and recommend a decision that is acceptable to the Court. Article III states that the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction extends to all federal cases "with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make." Appellate cases coming to the Court from the lower federal courts usually come from the 13 courts of appeals, although they may come from the Court of Military Appeals or, under special circumstances, directly from the district courts. Appellate cases may also come from the state courts of last resort, usually a state's supreme court. Until 1891 losing parties in the lower federal courts and state courts of last resort had the right to appeal their cases to the Supreme Court. The Court's docket was crowded with appeals, many of which raised routine or frivolous claims. In 1891 Congress created nine courts of appeals to correct errors in routine cases. (28 U.S.C.A. ch. 3). This reduced the Supreme Court's caseload, but parties often retained statutory rights to have their cases reviewed by the Court. In 1925 Congress reformed, at the Court's insistence, the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction by restricting the categories of cases in which litigants were afforded an appeal by right to the Supreme Court. In addition, the judiciary act of 1925, 43 Stat. 936, gave the Court the power to issue writs of certiorari to review all cases, federal or state, posing "federal questions of substance." The writ of certiorari gives the Court discretionary review, allowing it to address some issues and ignore others. Because of these reforms, the courts of appeals are the final decision-making courts in 98 percent of federal cases. In 1988 Congress passed the Act to Improve the Administration of Justice, 102 Stat. 663. This law eliminated most appeals by right to the Supreme Court, requiring the Court to hear appeals only in cases involving federal Civil Rights laws, legislative reapportionment, federal antitrust actions, and a few other matters. As a result of this growth in discretionary jurisdiction, the Supreme Court has the ability to set its own agenda. A party who seeks review of a decision petitions the Court for a writ of certiorari, an ancient Pleading form that grants the right for review. The justices deliberate in private on whether the issues presented by the case are significant enough to merit review. They operate under an informal rule of four, which means that certiorari will be granted if any four justices favor it. If certiorari is granted, the justices can decide the case on the papers submitted or schedule a full argument before the Court. If certiorari is denied, the matter ends there. With discretionary review, the justices have complete freedom in deciding whether to hear the case, and no one may question or appeal their decision. The Supreme Court also has special jurisdiction to answer certified questions sent to it from a federal court of appeals or from the U.S. Claims Court. The Supreme Court can either give instructions that the lower court is bound to follow or require the court to provide the record so that the Supreme Court can decide the entire lawsuit. Certification is rarely used. Decisions The decisions of the Supreme Court, whether by a denial of certiorari or by an opinion issued following oral argument, are final and cannot be appealed. A Supreme Court decision based on an interpretation of the Constitution may be changed by constitutional amendment. Congress may modify a decision that is based on the interpretation of an act of Congress by passing a law that directs the Court as to congressional intent and purpose. However, Congress has no power to modify a High Court decision that is based on the Court's interpretation of the Constitution. Finally, the Court may overrule itself, although it rarely does so. Rule Making Congress has conferred upon the Supreme Court the power to prescribe rules of procedure that the Court and the lower federal courts must follow. The Court has promulgated rules that govern civil and criminal cases in the district courts, Bankruptcy proceedings, admiralty cases, copyrights cases, and appellate proceedings. Further readings Baum, Lawrence. 2004. The Supreme Court. 8th ed. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. Fried, Charles. 2004. Saying What the Law Is: The Constitution in the Supreme Court. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press. Haines, Charles Grove. 2002. The Role of the Supreme Court in American Government and Politics. Union, N.J.: Law-book Exchange. Langran, Robert. 2003. The Supreme Court: A Concise History. New York: Peter Lang. Rehnquist, William H. 2002. The Supreme Court. New York: Vintage Books. U.S. Supreme Court. Available online at <www.supremecourtus.gov> (accessed October 21, 2003). Cross-references Judicial Review. composition a sum paid and accepted by creditors to ward off bankruptcy.COMPOSITION, contracts. An agreement, made upon a sufficient consideration, between a debtor and creditor, by which the creditor accepts part of the debt due to him in satisfaction of the whole. Montagu on Compos. 1; 3 Co. 118; Co. Litt. 212, b; 4 Mod. 88; 1 Str. 426; 2 T. R. 24, 26; 2 Chit. R. 541, 564; 5 D. & R. 56 3 B. & C. 242; 1 R. & M. 188; 1 B. & A. 103, 440; 3 Moore's R. 11; 6 T. R. 263; 1 D. & R. 493; 2 Campb. R. 283; 2 M. & S. 120; 1 N. R. 124; Harr. Dig. Deed VIII.
2. In England, compositions were formerly allowed for crimes and misdemeanors, even for murder. But these compositions are no longer allowed, and even a qui tam action cannot be lawfully compounded. Bac. Ab. Actions qui tam, See 2 John. 405; 9 John. 251; 10 John. 118; 11 John. 474; 6 N. H.-Rep. 200. Composition
CompositionVoluntary arrangement to restructure a firm's debt, under which payment is reduced.CompositionThe securities in a portfolio or fund, organized according to type. For example, the composition of a portfolio may be 60% stocks and 40% bonds.See COMPO
See CMPSNcomposition
Synonyms for compositionnoun designSynonyms- design
- form
- structure
- make-up
- organization
- arrangement
- constitution
- formation
- layout
- configuration
noun creationSynonyms- creation
- work
- piece
- production
- opus
- masterpiece
- chef-d'oeuvre
noun essaySynonyms- essay
- writing
- study
- exercise
- treatise
- literary work
noun arrangementSynonyms- arrangement
- balance
- proportion
- harmony
- symmetry
- concord
- consonance
- placing
noun creationSynonyms- creation
- making
- production
- fashioning
- formation
- putting together
- invention
- compilation
- formulation
Synonyms for compositionnoun something that is the result of creative effortSynonymsnoun a relatively brief discourse written especially as an exerciseSynonymsnoun a settlement of differences through mutual concessionSynonyms- accommodation
- arrangement
- compromise
- give-and-take
- medium
- settlement
|