electricity

electricity,

class of phenomena arising from the existence of chargecharge,
property of matter that gives rise to all electrical phenomena (see electricity). The basic unit of charge, usually denoted by e, is that on the proton or the electron; that on the proton is designated as positive (+e
..... Click the link for more information. . The basic unit of charge is that on the protonproton,
elementary particle having a single positive electrical charge and constituting the nucleus of the ordinary hydrogen atom. The positive charge of the nucleus of any atom is due to its protons.
..... Click the link for more information. or electronelectron,
elementary particle carrying a unit charge of negative electricity. Ordinary electric current is the flow of electrons through a wire conductor (see electricity). The electron is one of the basic constituents of matter.
..... Click the link for more information. —the proton's charge is designated as positive while the electron's is negative. There are three basic systems of units used to measure electrical quantities, the most common being the one in which the ampereampere
, abbr. amp or A, basic unit of electric current. It is the fundamental electrical unit used with the mks system of units of the metric system. The ampere is officially defined as the current in a pair of equally long, parallel, straight wires 1 meter apart that produces
..... Click the link for more information. is the unit of current, the coulombcoulomb
[for C. A. de Coulomb], abbr. coul or C, unit of electric charge. The absolute coulomb, the current U.S. legal standard, is the amount of charge transferred in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere; i.e., it is 1 ampere-second.
..... Click the link for more information. is the unit of charge, the voltvolt
[for Alessandro Volta], abbr. V, unit of electric potential and electromotive force. It is defined as the difference of electric potential existing across the ends of a conductor carrying a constant current of 1 ampere when the power dissipated is 1 watt.
..... Click the link for more information. is the unit of electromotive force, and the ohmohm
[for G. S. Ohm], symbol Ω, unit of electrical resistance, defined as the resistance in a circuit in which a potential difference of one volt creates a current of one ampere; hence, 1 ohm equals 1 volt/ampere. The megohm (1,000,000 ohms) and the milliohm (.
..... Click the link for more information. is the unit of resistance, reactance, or impedance (see electric and magnetic unitselectric and magnetic units,
units used to express the magnitudes of various quantities in electricity and magnetism. Three systems of such units, all based on the metric system, are commonly used.
..... Click the link for more information. ).

Properties of Electric Charges

According to modern theory, most elementary particleselementary particles,
the most basic physical constituents of the universe. Basic Constituents of Matter

Molecules are built up from the atom, which is the basic unit of any chemical element. The atom in turn is made from the proton, neutron, and electron.
..... Click the link for more information. of matter possess charge, either positive or negative. Two particles with like charges, both positive or both negative, repel each other, while two particles with unlike charges are attracted (see Coulomb's lawCoulomb's law
, in physics, law stating that the electrostatic force between two charged bodies is proportional to the product of the amount of charge on the bodies divided by the square of the distance between them.
..... Click the link for more information. ). The electric forceforce,
commonly, a "push" or "pull," more properly defined in physics as a quantity that changes the motion, size, or shape of a body. Force is a vector quantity, having both magnitude and direction.
..... Click the link for more information. between two charged particles is much greater than the gravitational force between the particles. The negatively charged electrons in an atomatom
[Gr.,=uncuttable (indivisible)], basic unit of matter; more properly, the smallest unit of a chemical element having the properties of that element. Structure of the Atom
..... Click the link for more information. are held near the nucleus because of their attraction for the positively charged protons in the nucleus.

If the numbers of electrons and protons are equal, the atom is electrically neutral; if there is an excess of electrons, it is a negative ionion,
atom or group of atoms having a net electric charge. Positive and Negative Electric Charges

A neutral atom or group of atoms becomes an ion by gaining or losing one or more electrons or protons.
..... Click the link for more information. ; and if there is a deficiency of electrons, it is a positive ion. Under various circumstances, the number of electrons associated with a given atom may change; chemical bonding results from such changes, with electrons being shared by more than one atom in covalent bonds or being transferred from one atom to another in ionic bonds (see chemical bondchemical bond,
mechanism whereby atoms combine to form molecules. There is a chemical bond between two atoms or groups of atoms when the forces acting between them are strong enough to lead to the formation of an aggregate with sufficient stability to be regarded as an
..... Click the link for more information. ). Thus many of the bulk properties of matter ultimately are due to the electric forces among the particles of which the substance is composed. Materials differ in their ability to allow charge to flow through them (see conductionconduction,
transfer of heat or electricity through a substance, resulting from a difference in temperature between different parts of the substance, in the case of heat, or from a difference in electric potential, in the case of electricity.
..... Click the link for more information. ; insulationinsulation
, use of materials or devices to inhibit or prevent the conduction of heat or of electricity. Common heat insulators are, fur, feathers, fiberglass, cellulose fibers, stone, wood, and wool; all are poor conductors of heat.
..... Click the link for more information. ); materials that allow charge to pass easily are called conductors, while those that do not are called insulators, or dielectricsdielectric
, material that does not conduct electricity readily, i.e., an insulator (see insulation). A good dielectric should also have other properties: It must resist breakdown under high voltages; it should not itself draw appreciable power from the circuit; it must have
..... Click the link for more information. . A third class of materials, called semiconductorssemiconductor,
solid material whose electrical conductivity at room temperature is between that of a conductor and that of an insulator (see conduction; insulation). At high temperatures its conductivity approaches that of a metal, and at low temperatures it acts as an insulator.
..... Click the link for more information. , conduct charge under some conditions but not under others.

Properties of Charges at Rest

Electrostaticselectrostatics,
study of phenomena associated with charged bodies at rest (see charge; electricity). A charged body has an excess of positive or negative charges, a condition usually brought about by the transfer of electrons to or from the body.
..... Click the link for more information. is the study of charges, or charged bodies, at rest. When positive or negative charge builds up in fixed positions on objects, certain phenomena can be observed that are collectively referred to as static electricity. The charge can be built up by rubbing certain objects together, such as silk and glass or rubber and fur; the friction between the objects causes electrons to be transferred from one to the other—from a glass rod to a silk cloth or from fur to a rubber rod—with the result that the object that has lost the electrons has a positive charge and the object that has gained them has an equal negative charge. An electrically neutral object can be charged by bringing it in contact with a charged object: if the charged object is positive, the neutral object gains a positive charge when some of its electrons are attracted onto the positive object; if the charged object is negative, the neutral object gains a negative charge when some electrons are attracted onto it from the negative object.

A neutral conductor may be charged by induction using the following procedure. A charged object is placed near but not in contact with the conductor. If the object is positively charged, electrons in the conductor are drawn to the side of the conductor near the object. If the object is negatively charged, electrons are drawn to the side of the conductor away from the object. If the conductor is then connected to a reservoir of electrons, such as the ground, electrons will flow onto or off of the conductor with the result that it acquires a charge opposite to that of the charged object brought near it.

See also polepole,
in electricity and magnetism, point where electric or magnetic force appears to be concentrated. A single electric charge located at a point is sometimes referred to as an electric monopole.
..... Click the link for more information. , in electricity and magnetism.

Properties of Charges in Motion

Electrodynamicselectrodynamics,
study of phenomena associated with charged bodies in motion and varying electric and magnetic fields (see charge; electricity); since a moving charge produces a magnetic field, electrodynamics is concerned with effects such as magnetism, electromagnetic
..... Click the link for more information. is the study of charges in motion. A flow of electric charge constitutes an electric current. Historically, the direction of current was described in terms of the motion of imaginary positive charges; this convention is still used by many scientists, although it is directly opposite to the direction of electron flow, which is now known to be the basis of electric current in solids. Current considered to be composed of imaginary positive charges is often called conventional current. In order for a current to exist in a conductor, there must be an electromotive forceelectromotive force,
abbr. emf, difference in electric potential, or voltage, between the terminals of a source of electricity, e.g., a battery from which no current is being drawn. When current is drawn, the potential difference drops below the emf value.
..... Click the link for more information. (emf), or potentialpotential, electric,
work per unit of electric charge expended in moving a charged body from a reference point to any given point in an electric field (see electrostatics).
..... Click the link for more information. difference, between the conductor's ends. An electric cell, a batterybattery, electric,
device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy, consisting of a group of electric cells that are connected to act as a source of direct current.
..... Click the link for more information. of cells, and a generatorgenerator,
in electricity, machine used to change mechanical energy into electrical energy. It operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction, discovered (1831) by Michael Faraday.
..... Click the link for more information. are all sources of electromotive force; any such source with an external conductor connected from one of the source's two terminals to the other constitutes an electric circuitelectric circuit,
unbroken path along which an electric current exists or is intended or able to flow. A simple circuit might consist of an electric cell (the power source), two conducting wires (one end of each being attached to each terminal of the cell), and a small lamp (the
..... Click the link for more information. . If the source is a battery, the current is in one direction only and is called direct current (DC). If the source is a generator without a commutator, the current direction reverses twice during each rotation of the armature, passing first in one direction and then in the other; such current is called alternating current (AC). The number of times alternating current makes a double reversal of direction each second is called the frequency of the current; the frequency of ordinary household current in the U.S. is 60 cycles per sec (60 Hz), and electric devices must be designed to operate at this frequency.

In a solid the current consists not of a few electrons moving rapidly but of many electrons moving slowly; although this drift of electrons is slow, the impulse that causes it when the circuit is completed moves through the circuit at nearly the speed of light. The movement of electrons in a current is not steady; each electron moves in a series of stops and starts. In a direct current, the electrons are spread evenly through the conductor; in an alternating current, the electrons tend to congregate along the surface of the conductor. In liquids and gases, the current carriers are not only electrons but also positive and negative ions.

History of Electricity

From the writings of Thales of Miletus it appears that Westerners knew as long ago as 600 B.C. that amber becomes charged by rubbing. There was little real progress until the English scientist William Gilbert in 1600 described the electrification of many substances and coined the term electricity from the Greek word for amber. As a result, Gilbert is called the father of modern electricity. In 1660 Otto von Guericke invented a crude machine for producing static electricity. It was a ball of sulfur, rotated by a crank with one hand and rubbed with the other. Successors, such as Francis Hauksbee, made improvements that provided experimenters with a ready source of static electricity. Today's highly developed descendant of these early machines is the Van de Graaf generator, which is sometimes used as a particle acceleratorparticle accelerator,
apparatus used in nuclear physics to produce beams of energetic charged particles and to direct them against various targets. Such machines, popularly called atom smashers, are needed to observe objects as small as the atomic nucleus in studies of its
..... Click the link for more information. . Robert Boyle realized that attraction and repulsion were mutual and that electric force was transmitted through a vacuum (c.1675). Stephen Gray distinguished between conductors and nonconductors (1729). C. F. Du Fay recognized two kinds of electricity, which Benjamin Franklin and Ebenezer Kinnersley of Philadelphia later named positive and negative.

The Leyden Jar and the Quantitative Era

Progress quickened after the Leyden jar was invented in 1745 by Pieter van Musschenbroek. The Leyden jar stored static electricity, which could be discharged all at once. In 1747 William Watson discharged a Leyden jar through a circuit, and comprehension of the current and circuit started a new field of experimentation. Henry Cavendish, by measuring the conductivity of materials (he compared the simultaneous shocks he received by discharging Leyden jars through the materials), and Charles A. Coulomb, by expressing mathematically the attraction of electrified bodies, began the quantitative study of electricity.

A new interest in current began with the invention of the battery. Luigi Galvani had noticed (1786) that a discharge of static electricity made a frog's leg jerk. Consequent experimentation produced what was a simple electron cell using the fluids of the leg as an electrolyte and the muscle as a circuit and indicator. Galvani thought the leg supplied electricity, but Alessandro Volta thought otherwise, and he built the voltaic pile, an early type of battery, as proof. Continuous current from batteries smoothed the way for the discovery of G. S. Ohm's law (pub. 1827), relating current, voltage (electromotive force), and resistance (see Ohm's lawOhm's law
[for G. S. Ohm], law stating that the electric current i flowing through a given resistance r is equal to the applied voltage v divided by the resistance, or i=v/r.
..... Click the link for more information. ), and of J. P. Joule's law of electrical heating (pub. 1841). Ohm's law and the rules discovered later by G. R. Kirchhoff regarding the sum of the currents and the sum of the voltages in a circuit (see Kirchhoff's lawsKirchhoff's laws
[for Gustav R. Kirchhoff], pair of laws stating general restrictions on the current and voltage in an electric circuit. The first of these states that at any given instant the sum of the voltages around any closed path, or loop, in the network is zero.
..... Click the link for more information. ) are the basic means of making circuit calculations.

Era of Electromagnetism

In 1819 Hans Christian Oersted discovered that a magnetic field surrounds a current-carrying wire. Within two years André Marie Ampère had put several electromagnetic laws into mathematical form, D. F. Arago had invented the electromagnet, and Michael Faraday had devised a crude form of electric motormotor, electric,
machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. When an electric current is passed through a wire loop that is in a magnetic field, the loop will rotate and the rotating motion is transmitted to a shaft, providing useful mechanical work.
..... Click the link for more information. . Practical application of a motor had to wait 10 years, however, until Faraday (and earlier, independently, Joseph Henry) invented the electric generator with which to power the motor. A year after Faraday's laboratory approximation of the generator, Hippolyte Pixii constructed a hand-driven model. From then on engineers took over from the scientists, and a slow development followed; the first power stations were built 50 years later (see power, electricpower, electric,
energy dissipated in an electrical or electronic circuit or device per unit of time. The electrical energy supplied by a current to an appliance enables it to do work or provide some other form of energy such as light or heat.
..... Click the link for more information. ).

In 1873 James Clerk Maxwell had started a different path of development with equations that described the electromagnetic field, and he predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves traveling with the speed of light. Heinrich R. Hertz confirmed this prediction experimentally, and Marconi first made use of these waves in developing radio (1895). John Ambrose Fleming invented (1904) the diodediode
, two-terminal electronic device that permits current flow predominantly in only one direction. Most diodes are semiconductor devices; diode electron tubes are now used only for a few specialized applications.
..... Click the link for more information. rectifier vacuum tube as a detector for the Marconi radio. Three years later Lee De Forest made the diode into an amplifier by adding a third electrode, and electronicselectronics,
science and technology based on and concerned with the controlled flow of electrons or other carriers of electric charge, especially in semiconductor devices. It is one of the principal branches of electrical engineering.
..... Click the link for more information. had begun. Theoretical understanding became more complete in 1897 with the discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson. In 1910–11 Ernest R. Rutherford and his assistants learned the distribution of charge within the atom. Robert Millikan measured the charge on a single electron by 1913.

Bibliography

See D. L. Anderson, Discovery of the Electron: The Development of the Atomic Concept of Electricity (1964); W. T. Scott, The Physics of Electricity and Magnetism (2d ed. 1966); M. Kaufman and J. A. Wilson, Basic Electricity (1973); E. T. Whittaker, History of Theories of Aether and Electricity (1954, repr. 1987).

Electricity

Physical phenomena involving electric charges, their motions, and their effects. The motion of a charge is affected by its interaction with the electric field and, for a moving charge, the magnetic field. The electric field acting on a charge arises from the presence of other charges and from a time-varying magnetic field. The magnetic field acting on a moving charge arises from the motion of other charges and from a time-varying electric field. Thus electricity and magnetism are ultimately inextricably linked. In many cases, however, one aspect may dominate, and the separation is meaningful. See Electric charge, Electric field, Magnetism

The quantitative development of electricity began late in the eighteenth century. J. B. Priestley in 1767 and C. A. Coulomb in 1785 discovered independently the inverse-square law for stationary charges. This law serves as a foundation for electrostatics. See Coulomb's law, Electrostatics

In 1800 A. Volta constructed and experimented with the voltaic pile, the predecessor of modern batteries. It provided the first continuous source of electricity. In 1820 H. C. Oersted demonstrated magnetic effects arising from electric currents. The production of induced electric currents by changing magnetic fields was demonstrated by M. Faraday in 1831. In 1851 he also proposed giving physical reality to the concept of lines of force. This was the first step in the direction of shifting the emphasis away from the charges and onto the associated fields. See Electromagnetic induction, Electromagnetism, Lines of force

In 1865 J. C. Maxwell presented his mathematical theory of the electromagnetic field. This theory, which proposed a continuous electric fluid, not only synthesized a unified theory of electricity and magnetism, but also showed optics to be a branch of electromagnetism. See Electromagnetic radiation, Maxwell's equations

The developments of theories about electricity subsequent to Maxwell have all been concerned with the microscopic realm. Faraday's experiments on electrolysis in 1833 had indicated a natural unit of electric charge, thus pointing toward a discrete rather than continuous charge. The existence of electrons, negatively charged particles, was postulated by A. Lorenz in 1895 and demonstrated by J. J. Thomson in 1897. The existence of positively charged particles (protons) was shown shortly afterward (1898) by W. Wien. Since that time, many particles have been found having charges numerically equal to that of the electron. The question of the fundamental nature of these particles remains unsolved, but the concept of a single elementary charge unit is apparently still valid. See Baryon, Electron, Elementary particle, Hyperon, Meson, Proton, Quarks

The sources of electricity in modern technology depend strongly on the application for which they are intended.

The principal use of static electricity today is in the production of high electric fields. Such fields are used in industry for testing the ability of components such as insulators and condensers to withstand high voltages, and as accelerating fields for charged-particle accelerators. The principal source of such fields today is the Van de Graaff generator. See Particle accelerator

The major use of electricity arises in devices using direct current and low-frequency alternating current. The use of alternating current, introduced by S. Z. de Ferranti in 1885–1890, allows power transmission over long distances at very high voltages with a resulting low-percentage power loss followed by highly efficient conversion to lower voltages for the consumer through the use of transformers. See Electric current

Large amounts of direct current are used in the electrodeposition of metals, both in plating and in metal production, for example, in the reduction of aluminum ore.

The principal sources of low-frequency electricity are generators based on the motion of a conducting medium through a magnetic field. The moving charges interact with the magnetic field to give a charge motion that is normal to both the direction of motion and the magnetic field. In the most common form, conducting wire coils rotate in an applied magnetic field. The rotational power is derived from a water-driven turbine in the case of hydroelectric generation, or from a gas-driven turbine or reciprocating engine in other cases.

Many high-frequency devices, such as communications equipment, television, and radar, involve the consumption of only moderate amounts of power, generally derived from low-frequency sources. If the power requirements are moderate and portability is needed, the use of ordinary chemical batteries is possible. Ion-permeable membrane batteries are a later development in this line. Fuel cells, particularly hydrogen-oxygen systems, are being developed. They have already found extensive application in earth satellite and other space systems. The successful use of thermoelectric generators based on the Seebeck effect in semiconductors has been reported. See Thermoelectricity

The solar battery, also a semiconductor device, has been used to provide charging current for storage batteries in telephone service and in communications equipment in artificial satellites.

Direct conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy is possible by utilizing the phenomena of piezoelectricity and magnetostriction. These have some application in acoustics and stress measurements. Pyroelectricity is a thermodynamic corollary of piezoelectricity. See Magnetostriction, Piezoelectricity, Pyroelectricity

Electricity

the aggregate of phenomena that are caused by the existence, motion, and interaction of electrically charged bodies or particles. The interaction of electric charges occurs with the help of an electromagnetic field (in the case of electric charges at rest, with the help of an electrostatic field). Moving charges (electric current) create, along with an electric field, a magnetic field; that is, they generate an electromagnetic field, by way of which electromagnetic interactions are accomplished (the science of magnetism is thus an integral part of the science of electricity). Electromagnetic phenomena are described by classical electrodynamics, which is based on Maxwell’s equations. (See ELECTRIC CHARGE; ; ; , ; MAGNETISM; ; and MAXWELLS EQUATIONS.)

The laws of the classical theory of electricity encompass a large number of electromagnetic processes. Among the four types of interactions existing in nature—electromagnetic, gravitational, strong, and weak interactions—electromagnetic interactions exhibit the widest range and greatest variety of manifestations. This is associated with the fact that all matter is made up of electrically charged particles of opposite signs, interactions between which on the one hand are many orders of magnitude stronger than gravitational or weak interactions, but on the other hand are long-range in comparison with strong interactions. The structure of atomic shells, how atoms are held together in molecules (chemical forces), and the formation of a condensed substance are determined by electromagnetic interactions.

History. The simplest electric and magnetic phenomena have been known since antiquity. Some minerals were found to attract small pieces of iron, and it was observed that amber (elektron in Greek; hence the term “electricity”) after being rubbed with wool attracted light objects (electrification by friction). However, it was not until 1600 that W. Gilbert for the first time ascertained the difference between electric and magnetic phenomena. Gilbert discovered the existence of magnetic poles and their inseparability from one another and established that the earth is a gigantic magnet.

In the 17th and first half of the 18th centuries, numerous experiments were performed with electrified bodies, the first electrostatic machines were constructed based on electrification by friction, the existence of two types of electric charges was established (C. F. Dufay), and the electrical conductivity of metals was discovered (the English scientist S. Gray). With the invention of the first capacitor, the Leyden jar (1745), it became possible to store large amounts of electric charge. In the period 1747–53, B. Franklin advanced the first consistent theory of electric phenomena, established the electric nature of lightning, and invented the lightning rod.

The quantitative investigation of electric and magnetic phenomena began in the second half of the 18th century, when the first measuring instruments—electroscopes of various designs and electrometers—appeared. H. Cavendish (1773) and C. A. de Coulomb (1785) established experimentally the law for the interaction of electric point charges at rest (Cavendish’s works were not published until 1879). This fundamental law of electrostatics (seeCOULOMBS LAW) made it possible to create for the first time a method of measuring electric charges by means of the forces of interaction between them. Coulomb also established the law for the interaction between the poles of long magnets and introduced the concept of magnetic charges concentrated at the ends of the magnets.

The next stage in the development of the science of electricity is linked with L. Galvani’s discovery of “animal electricity” in the late 1700’s and the research of A. Volta, who correctly interpreted Galvani’s experiments by having present in a closed circuit two different metals in the liquid and who invented the first source of electric current—the galvanic cell, called a voltaic pile (1800), which produced a prolonged continous direct current. In 1802, V. V. Petrov constructed a galvanic cell of considerably greater capacity, discovered the electric arc and studied its properties, and indicated the possibility of using the electric arc for illumination and for melting and welding metals. H. Davy obtained by the electrolysis of aqueous solutions of alkalies (1807) the previously unknown metals sodium and potassium. J. P. Joule determined (1841) that the amount of heat generated in a conductor by the passage of an electric current is proportional to the square of the current; this law was substantiated by the accurate experiments of H. F. E. Lenz (1842; Joule’s law). G. S. Ohm established (1826) a quantitative relationship between the electric current and voltage in a circuit. K. F. Gauss formulated (1830) the basic theorem of electrostatics (seeGAUSS’ THEOREM).

The most fundamental discovery was made in 1820 by H. C. Oersted, who observed the action of an electric current on a magnetic needle, a phenomenon that indicated a relationship between electricity and magnetism. Later that year, A. M. Ampere established the law of the interaction of electric currents (seeAMPERES LAW); he also demonstrated that the properties of permanent magnets could be explained proceeding from the assumption that electric currents are continuously circulating in the molecules of magnetized bodies (molecular currents). Thus, according to Ampere, all magnetic phenomena are reduced to the interactions of currents, and magnetic charges do not exist. From the time of Oersted’s and Ampere’s discoveries, the science of magnetism became an integral part of the science of electricity.

Beginning in the second quarter of the 19th century, electricity penetrated rapidly into technology. In the 1820’s the first electromagnets appeared. One of the first applications of electricity was the telegraph. Electric motors and generators were constructed in the 1830’s and 1840’s and electric illumination and other devices, in the 1840’s. Subsequently, the practical uses of electricity progressively increased, which in turn had an important influence on the science of electricity.

Major contributions to the development of the science of electricity were made in the 1830’s and 1840’s by M. Faraday, founder of the general science of electromagnetic phenomena, in which all electric and magnetic phenomena are treated from a single viewpoint. Faraday demonstrated experimentally that the effects of electric charges and currents do not depend on the method of obtaining them; before Faraday, a distinction was made between “normal” (obtained by triboelectrification), atmospheric, “galvanic,” magnetic, thermoelectric, “animal,” and other forms of electricity. In 1831, Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction, that is, the generation of an electric current in a circuit placed in a changing magnetic field; this phenomenon, which had also been observed in 1832 by J. Henry, constitutes the foundation of electrical engineering. In 1833–34, Faraday determined the laws of electrolysis, which marked the birth of electrochemistry (see). Later he sought to find the relationship between electric, magnetic, and optical phenomena. He also discovered the polarization of dielectrics (1837), the phenomena of paramagnetism and diamagnetism (1845), and the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarized light (1845).

Faraday was the first to introduce the concept of electric and magnetic fields. He refuted the concept of action at a distance, whose adherents believed that bodies acted on one another directly (through a vacuum) from a distance. According to Faraday’s ideas, the interaction between charges and currents is accomplished by means of intermediate agents: the charges and currents create in the surrounding space, respectively, electric or magnetic fields by way of which the interaction is transmitted from point to point (the concept of short-range action). Underlying his ideas about electric and magnetic fields was the concept of lines of force, which Faraday regarded as mechanical formations in a hypothetical medium, the ether, similar to extended elastic threads or cords (seeLINES OF FORCE).

Faraday’s ideas about the reality of an electromagnetic field were not immediately accepted. The first mathematical formulation of the laws of electromagnetic induction was given by F. Neumann in 1845 in the language of action at a distance. Neumann introduced the important concepts of the coefficients of self-induction and mutual induction for currents. The significance of these concepts was revealed completely later, when W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) evolved (1853) the theory of electric oscillations in a circuit composed of a capacitor (capacity) and a coil (inductance).

Of great importance to the development of the science of electricity was the creation of new instruments and methods in electrical measurements, along with the standard system of electrical and magnetic measuring units developed by Gauss and W. E. Weber (seeGAUSSIAN SYSTEM OF UNITS). In 1846, Weber indicated the relationship between current strength and the density of the electric charges in a conductor and the relationship between current strength and the velocity of the ordered motion of the charges. He also established the law for the interaction of moving point charges, which introduced a new universal electrodynamic constant, which is the ratio of the electrostatic and electromagnetic units of charge and has the dimension of velocity. In an experimental determination of this constant (Weber and R. H. A. Kohlrausch, 1856), a value was obtained close to the velocity of light, a definite indication of a relationship between electromagnetic and optical phenomena.

In the period 1861–73, the work of J. C. Maxwell developed and completed the science of electricity. On the basis of the empirical laws of electromagnetic phenomena, Maxwell formulated the fundamental equations of classical electrodynamics, now named after him, by introducing a hypothesis about the production of a magnetic field by a changing electric field. Like Faraday, he regarded electromagnetic phenomena as some form of mechanical process in an ether. A major new consequence was deduced from these equations—the existence of electromagnetic waves propagating with the velocity of light. Maxwell’s equations laid the foundations for the electromagnetic theory of light. Maxwell’s theory was substantiated in the period 1886–89, when H. R. Hertz demonstrated experimentally the existence of electromagnetic waves. Following Hertz’ discovery, attempts were made to communicate by means of electromagnetic waves, which culminated in the advent of radio and intensive research in the field of radio engineering.

The late 19th and early 20th centuries heralded a new era in the development of the theory of electricity. Studies of electric discharges were crowned with success when J. J. Thomson discovered the discreteness of electric charges. In 1897, Thomson measured the ratio of the charge of an electron to its mass, and in 1898 he determined the absolute value of the charge. Based on Thomson’s discovery and the conclusions of the molecular-kinetic theory, H. Lorentz laid the foundations for the electron theory of the construction of matter (seeLORENTZ-MAXWELL EQUATIONS). In the classical electron theory, matter is viewed as an aggregate of electrically charged particles, whose motions are in accordance with the laws of classical mechanics. Maxwell’s equations are derived from the equations for the electron theory by means of statistical averaging.

Attempts to apply the laws of classical electrodynamics to electromagnetic processes in moving mediums met with intrinsic difficulties. While seeking to resolve these difficulties, A. Einstein (1905) formulated the theory of relativity, which refuted once and for all the existence of an ether endowed with mechanical properties (seeRELATIVITY, THEORY OF). After the creation of the theory of relativity, it became evident that the laws of electrodynamics could not be reduced to the laws of classical mechanics.

In small intervals of space and time, the quantum properties of the electromagnetic field, which are not taken into account by the classical theory of electricity, become essential. The quantum theory of electromagnetic processes (seeQUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS) was evolved in the second quarter of the 20th century. The quantum theory of matter and fields now extends beyond the realm of the science of electricity and studies the more fundamental problems of the laws of motion and the structure of elementary particles.

With the discovery of new facts and the creation of new theories, the value of the classical science of electricity has not diminished, but rather the limits of applicability of classical electrodynamics have been defined. Within these limits, Maxwell’s equations and the classical electron theory remain valid, forming the foundation of the modern theory of electricity. Classical electrodynamics underlies most branches of electrical engineering, radio engineering, electronics, and optics (except quantum electronics). With the help of its equations, an enormous number of theoretical and applied problems have been solved. Specifically, the numerous problems concerning the behavior of a plasma under laboratory conditions and in space are being resolved by means of Maxwell’s equations (seePLASMA; CONTROLLED FUSION; and STAR).

REFERENCES

Kudriavtsev, P. S. Istoriia fiziki. Moscow, 1956.
Liozzi, M. Istoriia fiziki. Moscow, 1970. (Translated from Italian.)
Maxwell, J. C. Izbr. soch. po teorii elektromagnitnogo polia. Moscow, 1952. (Translated from English.)
Lorentz, H. A. Teoriia elektronov i ee primenenie k iavleniiam sveta i teplovogo izlucheniia, 2nd ed. Moscow, 1953. (Translated from English.)
Tamm, 1. E. Osnovy teorii elektrichestva, 9th ed. Moscow, 1976.

G. IA. MIAKISHEV

electricity

[i‚lek′tris·əd·ē] (physics) Physical phenomenon involving electric charges and their effects when at rest and when in motion.

electricity

1. any phenomenon associated with stationary or moving electrons, ions, or other charged particles 2. the science concerned with electricity 3. an electric current or charge

electricity

The flow of electrons in a circuit. The speed of electricity is the speed of light (approximately 186,000 miles per second or 300,000,000 meters per second). In a wire, it is slowed due to the resistance in the material.

Volts, Amps and Watts
Electrical pressure (force) is measured in "volts," and its flow (current) is measured in "amperes" or simply "amps." The amount of work electricity produces is measured in "watts" (amps X volts). See electron, electrical and electronic.

Electricity

Electricity has been known since ancient times, but scientists could not make use of it safely until the eighteenth century. Thomas Edison's invention of the electric lightbulb in 1879 sparked the demand for electric power that continues to this day, ultimately resulting in the need for legislative and regulatory controls on the electric-power-generating industry.

History

By the end of the nineteenth century, the United States had completed its transition from using wood as a major energy source to using coal, and the next transition from coal to oil and natural gas was just beginning. By the early twentieth century, both homes and businesses increased their demand for electric power, and electric utilities obtained long-term franchises from municipalities.

In 1920, the Federal Power Act (FPA), 16 U.S.C.A. §§ 791a–828c, was passed in response to increased competition between electric utilities and a lack of consistent service to rural areas. The Federal Power Act gave the Federal Power Commission the authority to license hydroelectric plants. Later, President franklin d. roosevelt encouraged Congress to create part II of the act, which gave the Federal Power Commission the power to regulate the transmission of electric energy (16 U.S.C.A. §§ 824–824m). This legislation was necessary to guard against potential abuses of the utility companies' monopolistic structure and to ensure adequate and consistent service nationwide.

As more and larger electric generating plants were constructed and as more electric power lines were strung, legislators believed that through economies of scale, electric utility monopolies could actually offer lower costs to consumers than could competition between smaller utilities. Because of the capital-intensive nature of providing electric power, and the sunken costs of building plants and stringing lines, it is more cost-effective to spread these costs over the large and consistent customer base provided by a Monopoly.

Structure of the Industry

Modern electric utilities have three major organizational components: generation (power plants), transmission (high-voltage bulk power between utilities), and distribution (low-voltage power to ultimate consumers). Modern electric utilities not only produce the power they need for their consumers but also pool and coordinate excess electricity with other utilities.

In 2001, the United States had the ability to produce over 788 million megawatts of electrical energy. Pooling and coordination of electrical energy take place through high-voltage wires that are maintained and referred to as the national grid; high-voltage wires are used because they allow transmission at a lower current, which generates less heat and results in less energy loss. At regional distribution centers closer to the ultimate consumers, the electrical energy is transformed into the low-voltage, higher-current electricity delivered to homes and businesses.

Major electric utilities produce electric power by burning coal, harnessing the hydroelectric energy produced by dams, and initiating and maintaining nuclear fission. Smaller, independent power producers use hydroelectric energy in addition to wood energy, geothermal energy, and biomass, which are all forms of renewable energy. Nuclear electric generating plants were constructed after the passage of the Atomic Energy Act (42 U.S.C.A. § 2011), which removed the government's monopoly over Nuclear Power, in 1946, and the Price-Anderson Act (42 U.S.C.A. § 2210), which allowed for private ownership of uranium, in 1957.

Commercial nuclear energy expanded in the 1960s and the early 1970s, and most consumers welcomed what was thought to be a safe and inexpensive source of energy. From the late 1970s to the 1990s, the dangers of nuclear energy and the expense of environmental contamination and lack of safe waste storage contributed to the end of nuclear power plant construction. No U.S. nuclear power plants have been ordered since 1978. Coal and hydroelectric energy continue to be the principal sources of commercial electric power.

Modern Legislation and Regulation of the Industry

The generation, transmission, and distribution of electric power are heavily regulated. At the federal level, the transmission of electric power between utilities is governed by the Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) (Pub. L. No. 95-617 [codified in various sections of U.S.C.A. tits. 15, 16]). In PURPA, Congress gave the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) jurisdiction over energy transmission. PURPA requires that independent power producers (IPPs) be allowed to interconnect with the distribution and transmission grids of major electric utilities. In addition, PURPA protects IPPs from paying burdensome rates for purchasing backup power from major utilities, and sets the rate at which the utilities can purchase power from IPPs at the major utilities' "avoided cost" (market cost minus the production costs "avoided" by purchasing from another utility) of producing the power.

The primary regulation of the generation, distribution, and transmission of electric power occurs at the state level through various state public utility commissions. Because the production of electric energy is connected with a public interest, states have a vested interest in overseeing it and working to guarantee that electricity will be produced in a safe, efficient, and expedient manner. In exchange for a monopoly in a particular geographic region, an electric utility must agree to supply electricity continuously and has a duty to avert unreasonable risks to its consumers. Electric utility companies must provide electricity at applicable lawful rates, and must file rate schedules with the public service commissions. Sometimes these rates are challenged, and administrative hearings are held to allow the utilities to petition for rate increases. Electricity rates must be high enough to cover the cost of production and must allow a fair return on the current value of capital investment. Rates that would allow significantly more than a fair return may be struck down as unreasonably high.

The regulatory landscape began to change in the late 1990s, as FERC endorsed the concept of greater competition in the sale of electricity. Advocates of competition contended that the production and delivery of electricity were two distinct activities that should not be bundled into one charge for energy consumer. Instead, they argued for a free market system where electricity could be bought and sold at the wholesale level for the lowest price and then delivered anywhere in the country. National energy producers and wholesalers sought to end the dominance of state and regional utility companies, which controlled the power lines through which these new competitors wanted to transmit electricity.

FERC issued an order in 1996 that opened up the electrical transmission lines owned by state power utilities to other wholesalers of electricity. The order required that utility companies break out their wholesale electricity rates to show how much was being charged for the generation of power, the transmission of electricity, and other ancillary services. In addition, whatever these companies charged to transmit their own electricity was the maximum amount they could charge other companies that wanted to use their transmission lines.

These regulations were also extended to the retail transmission of electricity in interstate commerce. However, FERC rejected the calls of energy resellers (such as the Texas-based Enron Corporation) to permit this same type of open access to retail power sales. This would have meant that consumers and businesses could obtain their power from an out-of-state provider, much like they can choose their long-distance telephone provider. FERC rejected this approach because it feared that it would be costly and difficult to administer.

The order led some states to deregulate their utilities to permit competition in this new legal environment. However, New York and eight other states objected to the order, believing it usurped state authority. They filed suit in federal court challenging the legality of the order. Enron also filed suit, challenging FERC's denial of access to the retail transmission of electricity. The two lawsuits were consolidated and heard by the Circuit Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia. The appellate court rejected the arguments of the states and Enron, concluding that FERC had authority under the FPA to issue such an order.

The Supreme Court, in New York v. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 535 U.S. 1, 122 S.Ct. 1012, 152 L.Ed.2d 47 (2002), upheld the circuit court decision. The Court concluded that although the states had regulated electricity for 60 years, this did not mean they had the underlying authority to make such decisions. The federal government had merely allowed these practices to continue. FERC had the authority to issue the order and had exercised this power lawfully. Though FERC had the authority to allow Enron and other companies to enter the retail sales market, the Court held that FERC had acted within its administrative powers in declining to exercise its jurisdiction at this time. FERC's decision not to claim jurisdiction over the retail market could be changed in the future.

The likelihood of FERC changing its mind anytime soon seemed unlikely. In 2001, the state of California was in the midst of an electricity crisis. A shortage of electricity led to skyrocketing prices, blackouts and brownouts, and expensive long-term contracts by the state to secure a supply of electricity into the future. The price of electricity jumped from $30 per megawatt hour to $361 per megawatt hour. However, within months, allegations surfaced that wholesalers such as Enron had manipulated the market to create artificial shortages, which led to the sale of electricity at inflated prices. A FERC administrative judge ruled in November 2002 that rates in California had been too high and that the state should receive a $1.8 billion refund. This was considerably less than the $8.9 billion refund the state sought.

Dangers and Liabilities

Electricity, especially at high voltages or high currents, is a dangerous commodity. Faulty wiring, power lines that are close to trees and buildings, and inadequate warning signs and fences around transformer stations and over buried electrical cables can subject an individual to electric shock or even electrocution. Because of the ultrahazardous nature of providing electric power, states have many statutes and regulations in place to protect the public from electric shock.

Other dangers from electricity include stray voltage and electromagnetic field radiation. Stray voltage affects farm animals, especially dairy cattle. On dairy farms, it occurs when cattle drink from electric feeding troughs or are attached to electric milking machines, and small electric shocks pass through the cattle, through their hooves, and into the ground. Repeated shocks can inhibit or destroy the milk-producing capability of dairy cattle. Liability for stray voltage on farms can be attributed to public utilities when wiring is faulty or negligently connected to a farmer's equipment. Some juries have awarded thousands of dollars to farmers whose cattle have been damaged by this phenomenon.

Electromagnetic fields are created whenever current moves through power lines. The strength of these fields drops off exponentially as the distance from the power lines increases. Individuals whose homes or businesses are close to power wires must live and work in these fields. Some individuals who live or work near high-voltage power lines have developed brain cancer and leukemia, and blame their condition on the constant exposure to electromagnetic field radiation. Studies have shown a correlation between electromagnetic fields and cancer, but many of the studies have been challenged as methodologically flawed. By the mid-1990s, no conclusive Scientific Evidence proved an epidemiological relationship between cancer and the electromagnetic fields produced by highvoltage power lines.

electricity

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Properties of Electric Charges

Properties of Charges at Rest

Properties of Charges in Motion

History of Electricity

The Leyden Jar and the Quantitative Era

Era of Electromagnetism

Bibliography

Electricity

Electricity

REFERENCES

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e·lec·tric·i·ty

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frictional electricity

galvanic electricity

induced electricity

magnetic electricity

negative electricity

positive electricity

static electricity

Patient discussion about electricity

Electricity

Electricity

History

Structure of the Industry

Modern Legislation and Regulation of the Industry

Dangers and Liabilities

Further readings

electricity

Synonyms for electricity

noun power

Synonyms

Synonyms for electricity

noun a physical phenomenon associated with stationary or moving electrons and protons

Related Words

noun energy made available by the flow of electric charge through a conductor

Synonyms

Related Words

noun keen and shared excitement

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