释义 |
theory
the·o·ry T0152000 (thē′ə-rē, thîr′ē)n. pl. the·o·ries 1. A set of statements or principles devised to explain a group of facts or phenomena, especially one that has been repeatedly tested or is widely accepted and can be used to make predictions about natural phenomena.2. The branch of a science or art consisting of its explanatory statements, accepted principles, and methods of analysis, as opposed to practice: a fine musician who had never studied theory.3. A set of theorems that constitute a systematic view of a branch of mathematics.4. Abstract reasoning; speculation: a decision based on experience rather than theory.5. A belief or principle that guides action or assists comprehension or judgment: staked out the house on the theory that criminals usually return to the scene of the crime.6. An assumption based on limited information or knowledge; a conjecture. [Late Latin theōria, from Greek theōriā, from theōros, spectator : probably theā, a viewing + -oros, seeing (from horān, to see).]theory (ˈθɪərɪ) n, pl -ries1. a system of rules, procedures, and assumptions used to produce a result2. abstract knowledge or reasoning3. a speculative or conjectural view or idea: I have a theory about that. 4. an ideal or hypothetical situation (esp in the phrase in theory)5. a set of hypotheses related by logical or mathematical arguments to explain and predict a wide variety of connected phenomena in general terms: the theory of relativity. 6. a nontechnical name for hypothesis1[C16: from Late Latin theōria, from Greek: a sight, from theōrein to gaze upon]the•o•ry (ˈθi ə ri, ˈθɪər i) n., pl. -ries. 1. a coherent group of general propositions used as principles of explanation for a class of phenomena: Darwin's theory of evolution. 2. a proposed explanation whose status is still conjectural. 3. a body of mathematical principles, theorems, or the like, belonging to one subject: number theory. 4. the branch of a science or art that deals with its principles or methods, as distinguished from its practice: music theory. 5. a particular conception or view of something to be done or of the method of doing it. 6. a guess or conjecture. 7. contemplation or speculation. Idioms: in theory, under hypothetical or ideal conditions; theoretically. [1590–1600; < Late Latin theōria < Greek theōría observing, contemplation, theory =theōr(eîn) to observe (see theorem) + -ia -y3] syn: theory, hypothesis are used in non-technical contexts to mean an untested idea or opinion. A theory in technical use is a more or less verified or established explanation accounting for known facts or phenomena: Einstein's theory of relativity. A hypothesis is a conjecture put forth as a possible explanation of phenomena or relations, which serves as a basis of argument or experimentation to reach the truth: This idea is only a hypothesis. the·o·ry (thē′ə-rē, thîr′ē) A set of statements or principles devised to explain a group of facts or phenomena. Most theories that are accepted by scientists have been repeatedly tested by experiments and can be used to make predictions about natural phenomena. See Note at hypothesis.ThesaurusNoun | 1. | theory - a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world; an organized system of accepted knowledge that applies in a variety of circumstances to explain a specific set of phenomena; "theories can incorporate facts and laws and tested hypotheses"; "true in fact and theory"reductionism - a theory that all complex systems can be completely understood in terms of their componentsexplanation - thought that makes something comprehensiblelaw of nature, law - a generalization that describes recurring facts or events in nature; "the laws of thermodynamics"hypothesis, theory, possibility - a tentative insight into the natural world; a concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain certain facts or phenomena; "a scientific hypothesis that survives experimental testing becomes a scientific theory"; "he proposed a fresh theory of alkalis that later was accepted in chemical practices"blastogenesis - theory that inherited characteristics are transmitted by germ plasmpreformation, theory of preformation - a theory (popular in the 18th century and now discredited) that an individual develops by simple enlargement of a tiny fully formed organism (a homunculus) that exists in the germ cellscientific theory - a theory that explains scientific observations; "scientific theories must be falsifiable"field theory - (physics) a theory that explains a physical phenomenon in terms of a field and the manner in which it interacts with matter or with other fieldseconomic theory - (economics) a theory of commercial activities (such as the production and consumption of goods)atomist theory, atomistic theory, atomic theory, atomism - (chemistry) any theory in which all matter is composed of tiny discrete finite indivisible indestructible particles; "the ancient Greek philosophers Democritus and Epicurus held atomic theories of the universe"holism, holistic theory - the theory that the parts of any whole cannot exist and cannot be understood except in their relation to the whole; "holism holds that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts"; "holistic theory has been applied to ecology and language and mental states"structural sociology, structuralism - a sociological theory based on the premise that society comes before individualsstructural anthropology, structuralism - an anthropological theory that there are unobservable social structures that generate observable social phenomena | | 2. | theory - a tentative insight into the natural world; a concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain certain facts or phenomena; "a scientific hypothesis that survives experimental testing becomes a scientific theory"; "he proposed a fresh theory of alkalis that later was accepted in chemical practices"hypothesis, possibilityconcept, conception, construct - an abstract or general idea inferred or derived from specific instanceshypothetical - a hypothetical possibility, circumstance, statement, proposal, situation, etc.; "consider the following, just as a hypothetical"gemmule - the physically discrete element that Darwin proposed as responsible for heredityframework, model, theoretical account - a hypothetical description of a complex entity or process; "the computer program was based on a model of the circulatory and respiratory systems"conjecture, speculation - a hypothesis that has been formed by speculating or conjecturing (usually with little hard evidence); "speculations about the outcome of the election"; "he dismissed it as mere conjecture"supposal, supposition, assumption - a hypothesis that is taken for granted; "any society is built upon certain assumptions"theory - a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world; an organized system of accepted knowledge that applies in a variety of circumstances to explain a specific set of phenomena; "theories can incorporate facts and laws and tested hypotheses"; "true in fact and theory"historicism - a theory that social and cultural events are determined by history | | 3. | theory - a belief that can guide behavior; "the architect has a theory that more is less"; "they killed him on the theory that dead men tell no tales"belief - any cognitive content held as trueegoism - (ethics) the theory that the pursuit of your own welfare in the basis of moralitypatchwork, hodgepodge, jumble - a theory or argument made up of miscellaneous or incongruous ideas |
theorynoun1. hypothesis, philosophy, system of ideas, plan, system, science, scheme, proposal, principles, ideology, thesis He produced a theory about historical change. hypothesis fact, experience, practice, reality, certainty2. belief, feeling, speculation, assumption, guess, hunch, presumption, conjecture, surmise, supposition There was a theory that he wanted to marry her.in theory in principle, on paper, in an ideal world, in the abstract, hypothetically, all things being equal School dental services exists in theory, but in practice there are few.theorynoun1. Abstract reasoning:conjecture, speculation.2. A belief used as the basis for action:hypothesis.3. Something taken to be true without proof:assumption, postulate, postulation, premise, presupposition, supposition, thesis.Translationstheory (ˈθiəri) – plural ˈtheories – noun1. an idea or explanation which has not yet been proved to be correct. There are many theories about the origin of life; In theory, I agree with you, but it would not work in practice. 意見,觀念 意见,观念 2. the main principles and ideas in an art, science etc as opposed to the practice of actually doing it. A musician has to study both the theory and practice of music. 理論 理论ˌtheoˈretical (-ˈreti-) adjective 理論上的 理论上的ˌtheoˈretically (-ˈreti-) adverb. 在理論上 在理论上ˈtheorize, ˈtheorise verb to make theories. He did not know what had happened, so he could only theorize about it. 推理(推想) 推理(推想) ˈtheorist noun 理論家 理论家theory
domino theory1. The political theory that, if one country or area adopts communism, then the surrounding ones will as well. The domino theory was a major concern as the Soviet Union expanded its power after World War II.2. By extension, the idea that an event in one country will result in similar events in the surrounding countries. The string of revolutions that occurred in neighboring countries during the Arab Spring was a great example of domino theory in action.See also: domino, theoryin theoryHypothetically; as a possibility. As opposed to in reality or in practice. In theory, we could drive to the mountains for a quick ski session before our flight tomorrow evening, but I think it would be cutting it too close. These magnets are supposed to regulate the body's natural energy, in theory anyway.See also: theoryan ounce of common sense is worth a pound of theorySound, practical, common-sense solutions will always be more beneficial than abstract theoretical ones. You can talk and talk about the socioeconomic analyses your department has undertaken to help solve the homelessness crisis, but as ever before, an ounce of common sense is worth a pound of theory—the only thing we need right now is more and affordable housing! I know you're looking into some out-of-the-box ways to lose weight, but you should save your time and money. Just eat less, eat healthy, and exercise more—an ounce of common sense is worth a pound of theory.See also: common, of, ounce, pound, sense, theory, worthin theoryaccording to a theory; theoretically. In theory, if I take my medicine regularly, I will get well. How things work in theory doesn't always match with how things work in reality.See also: theoryounce of common sense is worth a pound of theoryProv. Common sense will help you solve problems more than theory will. The psychologist had many elaborate theories about how to raise her child, but often forgot that an ounce of common sense is worth a pound of theory.See also: common, of, ounce, pound, sense, theory, worthin ˈtheory used to say that a particular statement is supposed to be true but may in fact be wrong: In theory, these machines should last for ten years or more. ♢ That sounds fine in theory, but have you really thought it through?See also: theorySee theory
theory
theory, in music, discipline involving the construction of cognitive systems to be used as a tool for comprehending musical compositions. The discipline is subdivided into what can be called speculative and analytic theory. Speculative theory engages in reconciling with music certain philosophical observations of man and nature. It can be prescriptive when it imposes these extramusical contentions to establish an aesthetic norm. Music theory tended toward this aspect until the 20th cent. An example is the attempt to assert the superiority of tonal music over other systems by reference to the relationship of the triad to the natural overtone series. Analytic theory, on the other hand, undertakes detailed study of individual pieces. Analyses of compositions of a particular genre are synthesized into a general system, or reference, against which the individuality of these pieces can be perceived. In more general usage the term theory is used to include the study of acoustics, harmony, and ear training. In ancient Greece music theory was mainly concerned with describing different scales (modes) and their emotional character. This theory was transmitted, largely erroneously, to medieval Europe by the Roman philosopher BoethiusBoethius , Boetius , or Boece (Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius), c.475–525, Roman philosopher and statesman. An honored figure in the public life of Rome, where he was consul in 510, he became the able minister of the Emperor Theodoric. ..... Click the link for more information. in his De musica (6th cent. A.D.). Medieval European theory dealt with notation, modal and rhythmic systems, and the relation of music to Christianity. Gioseffo Zarlino (1515–90) was the first to consider the triad as a compositional reference. In the 18th cent. Jean Philippe RameauRameau, Jean Philippe , 1683–1764, French composer and theorist. He was organist at the cathedral in Clermont and at Notre Dame de Dijon. In the early part of his career his wrote two treatises on harmony (1722, 1726) in which he introduced the important and influential ..... Click the link for more information. sought to show how the major-minor system of tonal harmony derives from the inherent acoustical properties of sound itself, and establish the laws of harmonic progression. The writings of Heinrich SchenkerSchenker, Heinrich , 1868–1935, Austro-Polish music theorist. Educated at the Vienna Conservatory, he devoted his life to teaching and research. Schenker developed the concept of structural levels and coherence in tonal music. ..... Click the link for more information. are among the most important in the sphere of tonal theory. Major contemporary theorists are Paul Hindemith, who propounded the idea of non-triadic pitch centrality, and Milton BabbittBabbitt, Milton, 1916–2011, American composer, b. Philadelphia. Babbitt turned to music after studying mathematics. He studied composition with Roger Sessions at Princeton, and taught there from 1938 (emeritus from 1984). ..... Click the link for more information. , who has published revealing explications of twelve-tone music.theory - (in physical science and in social science) any set of hypotheses or propositions, linked by logical or mathematical arguments, which is advanced to explain an area of empirical reality or type of phenomenon. See also FORMAL THEORY, MODEL.
- in a looser sense, any abstract general account of an area of reality, usually including the use of formulation of general concepts. See also EXPLANATION, SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY.
Even in the physical sciences, the importance of theories in the strict logical or mathematical form is challenged by some philosophers and historians of science (see SCIENTIFIC PARADIGM, KUHN, FEYERABEND).Theory A theory, in the broad sense of the term, is a complex of opinions, concepts, and ideas aimed at the interpretation and explanation of some phenomenon. In a narrower and more specific sense of the word, a theory is the highest and most highly developed form of organization of scientific knowledge; it provides an integral representation of the regularities and essential relationships in the area of reality that constitutes the object of the theory. V. I. Lenin wrote, in regard to knowledge in the form of a theory, that “theoretical cognition ought to give the object in its necessity, in its all-sided relations” (Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 29, p. 193). In structure a theory is an internally differentiated but integral system of knowledge. It is characteristic of a theory that some elements are logically dependent on others and that the content of the theory can be deduced from some set of more primitive statements and concepts in accordance with certain logical and methodical principles and rules. Since it is based on social practice and provides integral, reliable, and systematically developed knowledge of the essential relationships and regularities of reality, a theory constitutes the most advanced form of scientific grounding and programming of practical activity. The role of a theory is not limited to the generalization of the experience of practical activity and the application of this experience to new situations but extends to the creative processing of the experience. Consequently, a theory opens up new prospects before practice and broadens its horizons. Marxism-Leninism rejects not only the depreciation of theory into an identification with practice but also scholastic theorization, which separates theory from reality. By making use of the knowledge embodied in a theory, man is able to create that which does not exist in the natural or social reality at hand but is possible from the point of view of the objective laws revealed by the theory. This programming role of a theory with respect to practice is evidenced both in the sphere of material production and in social life. In material production, the role consists in the realization of scientific discoveries made possible by scientific theories, particularly in the age of the modern scientific and technological revolution and the transformation of science into a direct productive force. With respect to social life, the most advanced theory of social development reflects the objective regularities of social development and at the same time embodies the ideology of progressive social forces. This theory provides the scientific basis of the program for a revolutionary transformation of society. The role of theory increases particularly in the epoch of the creation of a socialist and communist society on the basis of the conscious activity of the masses. As Lenin emphasized, “without revolutionary theory there can be no revolutionary movement” (ibid., vol. 6, p. 24). Moreover, “the role of vanguard fighter can be fulfilled only by a party that is guided by the most advanced theory” (ibid., p. 25). The Marxist-Leninist theory of society reveals the objective laws of socialist development. The orienting and guiding role of this most advanced theory under present-day conditions is clearly evidenced in the leadership by the CPSU of the developed socialist society in its movement toward communism. The criterion for the truth of a theory is the accomplishment of a purposeful, practical transformation of reality on the basis of the knowledge embodied in the theory (seeTRUTH). In the course of its practical application, the theory is improved and developed. Practice thus provides not only the criterion of truth but also the foundation for the development of the theory. In Lenin’s words, “practice is higher than (theoretical) knowledge, for it has not only the dignity of universality, but also of immediate actuality” (ibid., vol. 29, p. 195). In the application of a theory, the knowledge formulated in it is mediated by the intermediary of various auxiliary links and concretizing factors. This process presupposes living, creative thought that not only is guided by the theory as by a program but also mobilizes all the possible means of orientation in the specific situation. In other words, the effective application of a theory requires the “living perception” of the object; the use of practical experience, the involvement of emotional and aesthetic aspects of consciousness; and the activation of the capacity for creative imagination. As a form of a special type of apprehension of the world, a theory functions in the system of culture in close interaction with other, nontheoretical forms of consciousness. Consequently, the formation, development, and application of a theory are always associated with definite ideological, moral, and aesthetic factors. A serious scientific theory, which is always linked in some way with a definite philosophical and ideological orientation, contributes to the strengthening of a particular world view. For example, the theories of N. Copernicus and I. Newton played an important role in the struggle with the religious world view, and Darwin’s theory of evolution contributed to the acceptance of the ideas of the dialectical materialistic world view. On the other hand, the history of cognition contains many instances of pseudoscientific conceptions that lay claim to the role of genuine theories but in reality express an antiscientific, reactionary ideology. Examples are social Darwinism, racism, and geopolitics. The dependence of the content of a theory on ideological orientation and social-class interests is particularly marked in the social sciences, where the struggle of the advanced scientific theory of Marxism-Leninism with reactionary views represents a struggle of opposed ideologies (seePARTIINOST). As a specific form of scientific knowledge, a theory is more complicated and more highly developed than such other forms as a hypothesis or a law. Consequently, a theory must be distinguished from other forms of scientific knowledge—for example, from scientific laws, classifications, typologies, and preliminary explanatory schemes. Such forms may be genetically prior to a theory and may underlie its formation. On the other hand, they often coexist with a theory, interacting with it in the system of science and may even, as in the case of theoretical laws and typologies based on theory, constitute elements of a theory. In the division of labor among various modes of intellectual production, the specific function of scientific-theoretical consciousness in general consists in such consciousness being specialized activity concerned with the development of as broad a spectrum as possible of cognitive norms for the relation of man to the world; this spectrum is embodied in the content of science. Consequently, the principal element of scientific cognition in any of its stages is theoretical thought as the activity of “the investigation of the nature of concepts.” F. Engels, it may be noted, characterized this activity as a necessary prerequisite for dialectical thinking (K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 20, pp. 537–38). The fundamental role of theoretical thought means that scientific knowledge is theoretical from its very inception. In other words, scientific knowledge is always associated with reflection on the content of concepts and on the investigative activity that leads to it. The forms and depth of theoretical thought, however, may vary markedly. This fact finds historical expression in the development of the structure of theoretical knowledge and in the formation of the various modes of internal organization of such knowledge. Although theoretical thought in general—that is, theory in the broad sense of the word—is necessarily concomitant with every science, true theory, or theory in the strict sense, appears at fairly high stages in the development of a science and is the result of the systematic development of the capacity for theoretical thought. The first true theories were formulated in ancient science; an example is Euclid’s work. At about the same time, Aristotle and the Stoics devoted considerable thought to the structure of theoretical knowledge. The next important step in the development of theoretical knowledge was connected with the emergence and development of experimental natural science between the 16th and 18th centuries. In this period and, to a certain extent, in the first half of the 19th century, scientific knowledge involved primarily the collection and processing of empirical data and the derivation of empirical generalizations and regularities. This empirical work, however, was also associated with the development of the capacity for theoretical thought. In particular, a clearly defined development occurred with regard to conceptual and theoretical notions concerning, for example, gases, heat, electricity, magnetism, and optical phenomena. To a considerable extent these notions oriented and guided the empirical research. This fact is evidenced, for example, in the history of the discovery of Coulomb’s and Ohm’s laws. The general trend in the development of science has been along the lines of intensive development of theoretical research, the improvement and enrichment of the conceptual apparatus of science, and the gradual separation of the theoretical content of science into an independent stratum. The strengthening of the theoretical side of science can be evaluated in terms of the following: the level of comprehension by scientific thought of its conceptual apparatus, which in the early stages retains a close association with prescientific concepts; the degree of critical awareness of and control over the conceptual apparatus; and, above all, the extent of the development of the constructive capacity for the formulation of truly scientific abstractions. The transition between the empirical stage of a science, which is limited to the classification and generalization of experimental data, and the theoretical stage, where true theories appear and develop, occurs through a series of intermediate forms of theori-zation. Within the framework of these intermediate forms primitive theoretical constructs are developed—for example, idealizations, such as the mathematical point, and hypothetical substances that are used to explain experimentally observed phenomena, as in the early conceptions of current as a fluid. Such theoretical formations are a result of the constructive activity of theoretical thought. Although they may be the source for the emergence of a theory, the constructs do not themselves form a theory. The emergence of a theory is associated with the possibility of forming multilevel constructions, which are developed, concretized, and internally differentiated by theoretical thought on the basis of some set of theoretical principles. In this sense a mature theory consists not only of the sum of interrelated pieces of knowledge but also of a definite mechanism for producing knowledge and for the internal development of theoretical content; the theory may be said to embody a certain program of investigation. These characteristics of a theory are responsible for its being an integral, unified system of knowledge. Because a theory provides such a framework and basis for the development of the apparatus of scientific abstractions, theories constitute powerful tools for the solution of fundamental problems of theoretical scientific thinking—that is, for acquiring knowledge of the nature of the phenomena that make up reality. Four basic components are customarily distinguished in the structure of a theory: (1) An initial empirical basis, which is the set of facts in the given sphere of knowledge that have been obtained in the course of experiments and require theoretical explanation. (2) An initial theoretical basis, which is the set of fundamental assumptions, postulates, axioms, and general laws that, taken together, describe the idealized object of the theory. (3) The system of logic used in the theory—that is, the set of laws of logical inference and proof that are permissible within the framework of the theory. (4) The aggregate of the statements deduced in the theory and their proofs; this aggregate makes up the principal body of theoretical knowledge. Methodologically, the central role in the formulation of a theory is played by the idealized object underlying the theory. The idealized object is a theoretical model that makes use of certain hypothetical assumptions and idealizations to represent essential relations in reality (seeMODEL and MODELING). The construction of an idealized object is a necessary stage in the creation of any theory and is carried out in forms specific to the various fields of knowledge. For example, in Das Kapital Marx, after developing the labor theory of value and analyzing the structure of capitalist production, worked out an idealized object that was a theoretical model of the capitalist mode of production. The idealized object in classical mechanics is a system of material plants. In molecular kinetic theory the idealized object is a set of randomly colliding molecules enclosed in a definite volume and represented as perfectly resilient material points. The idealized object may assume various forms. It may or may not involve mathematical description, and it may or may not have features that are convincing by their obviousness. In all cases, however, it must serve as a constructive means for the development of the entire system of the theory. The idealized object thus not only is a theoretical model of reality but also implicitly contains a definite program of investigation, which is realized in the construction of the theory. The relations among the initial and derived elements of the idealized object constitute theoretical laws, which are formulated by means of certain thought processes involving the idealized object rather than directly on the basis of the study of experimental data, as in the case of empirical laws. It follows that the laws formulated within the framework of a theory essentially pertain not to the empirically given reality but to reality as it is represented by the idealized object. Consequently, the laws must be concretized in a suitable manner when they are applied to the study of objective reality. Theories can be classified into a variety of types corresponding to the variety of forms of idealization and, accordingly, the variety of types of idealized objects. Descriptive theories are concerned primarily with the description and ordering of, usually, a vast amount of empirical material. In such theories the construction of the idealized object in practice reduces to the refinement of the initial conceptual scheme. In modern mathematicized theories the idealized object is usually a mathematical model or set of such models. In deductive theoretical systems the construction of the idealized object essentially coincides with the construction of the initial theoretical basis. The development of the content of a theory involves identifying as many as possible of the possibilities inherent in the initial premises of the theory and in the structure of its idealized object. In particular, the development of the content of theories using mathematical formalism involves formal operations with the symbols of a mathematicized language that expresses certain parameters of the object. In theories in which mathematical formalism is not used or is insufficiently developed, reasoning or argumentation predominates that is based on analysis of the content of the theories’ fundamental premises and on thought experiments with the idealized objects. In addition, the development of a theory involves the construction of new levels and strata of content of the theory on the basis of the concretization of the theoretical knowledge of the real object. Here, new assumptions may be incorporated into the theory, or more substantive idealized objects may be constructed. For example, in Das Kapital Marx passes from an examination of commodity production in the abstract to an analysis of capitalist production proper and of production abstracted from circulation to an analysis of the unity of production and circulation. As a result, the concretization of a theory leads to its development into a system of interrelated theories that are united by the idealized object underlying them. This situation is one of the characteristic expressions of the method of the ascent from the abstract to the concrete, a method Marx considered an important feature of theoretical scientific thought (Marx and Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 46, part 1, pp. 37–38). The process of development is constantly stimulated by the need to handle within the framework of, and on the basis of, the initial propositions of the theory a great amount of varied empirical material pertaining to the theory’s subject. The development of a theory, therefore, consists not in an immanent, logical working of theoretical thought but in an active processing of empirical information into the content of the theory and in a concretization and enrichment of the theory’s conceptual apparatus. The development of the content of a theory places certain limits on the possibilities for logical formalization of the processes of the theory’s construction. Despite the fruitfulness of the formalization and axiomatization of theoretical knowledge (seeAXIOMATIC METHOD), it cannot be denied that the actual process of the constructive development of a theory, in the course of the ascent of theoretical thought from the abstract to the concrete, is affected by the problems of dealing with new empirical material and does not fit into the framework of the formal-deductive conception of the development of a theory. Theories may be developed, and in fact often are developed, in relative independence from empirical research. The development may be effected through operations with symbols according to the rules of mathematical or logical formalisms, through the introduction of various hypothetical assumptions or theoretical models (particularly mathematical hypotheses or models), and through imaginary experiments with the idealized objects. The relative independence of theoretical research is responsible for an important advantage of thought at the theory level: this independence gives rise to a wealth of heuristic possibilities. A scientific theory, however, is developed and used most effectively when the theory is closely connected with empirical research. A theory yields practical knowledge about the world only when the theory receives an empirical interpretation. In modern science such interpretations are often far from trivial. For example, in modern physics the construction of a theory often begins with the development of a mathematical formalism whose empirical interpretation is initially unknown, at least in certain parts. Empirical interpretation helps make possible the experimental verification of the theory and contributes to the establishment of the theory’s explanatory and predictive power regarding objective reality. The empirical verification of a theory and the evaluation of the theory with regard to its explanatory and predictive power are, however, complicated multistage processes. Just as the bearing out of a theory by individual empirical examples does not necessarily constitute unconditional evidence in favor of the theory, so the contradiction of a theory by individual facts does not necessarily provide grounds for rejecting it. Such a contradiction, however, may serve as a powerful stimulus for improving the theory and may even entail the reconsideration and refinement of the theory’s basic princples. The decision to reject a theory is usually associated with a general discreditation of the theory’s underlying program of research and the appearance of a new program that evidences greater explanatory and predictive power relative to the area of reality studied by the theories in question (seeCONSERVATION LAW). The comparative evaluation of rival theories is also an important problem in the methodological analysis of the selection of a theory. Such an evaluation ultimately involves identifying the relative advantages of the explanatory and predictive capabilities of the theories being compared. REFERENCESEngels, F. Dialektika prirody. In K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 20. Lenin, V. I. Chto delat’? In Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 6. Lenin, V. I. Materializm i empiriokrititsizm. Ibid., vol. 18. Lenin, V. I. Filosofskie tetradi. Ibid., vol. 29. Kuznetzov, I. V. “Struktura fizicheskoi teorii.” Voprosy filosofii, 1967, no. 11. Carnap, R. Filosofskie osnovaniia fiziki. Moscow, 1971. (Translated from English.) Stepin, V. S. “K probleme struktury i genezisa nauchnoi teorii.” In the collection Filosofia, metodologiia, nauka, Moscow, 1972. Bazhenov, L. B. “Stroenie i funktsii estestvenno-nauchnoi teorii.” In the collection Sintez sovremennogo nauchnogo znaniia. Moscow, 1973. Mamchur, E. A. Problemy vybora teorii. Moscow, 1975. Shvyrev, V. S. “K analizu kategorii teoreticheskogo i empiricheskogo v nauchnom poznanii.” Voprosy filosofii, 1975, no. 2.V. S. SHVYREV theory[′thē·ə·rē] (mathematics) The collection of theorems and principles associated with some mathematical object or concept. (science and technology) An attempt to explain a certain class of phenomena by deducing them as necessary consequences of other phenomena regarded as more primitive and less in need of explanation. theoryThe consensus, idea, plan, story, or set of rules that iscurrently being used to inform a behaviour. This usage is ageneralisation and (deliberate) abuse of the technicalmeaning. "What's the theory on fixing this TECO loss?""What's the theory on dinner tonight?" ("Chinatown, Iguess.") "What's the current theory on letting lusers onduring the day?" "The theory behind this change is to fix thefollowing well-known screw...."theoryAn unproven concept.theory
theory [the´ah-re, thēr´e] 1. the doctrine or the principles underlying an art as distinguished from the practice of that particular art.2. a formulated hypothesis or, loosely speaking, any hypothesis or opinion not based upon actual knowledge.3. a provisional statement or set of explanatory propositions that purports to account for or characterize some phenomenon. The concepts and provisions set forth in a theory are more specific and concrete than those of a conceptual model. Hence a theory is derived from a conceptual model to fully describe, explain, and predict phenomena within the domain of the model.attribution theory a theory developed in an attempt to understand why an event occurred so that later events can be predicted and controlled.care-based theory a type of ethical theory of health care based on the two central constructive ideas of mutual interdependence and emotional response. The ethics of care is a rejection of impartial, principle-driven, dispassionate reasoning and judgment that has often dominated the models and paradigms of bioethics. Its origins are developmental psychology, moral theory, and feminist writings. Its moral concern is with needs and corresponding responsibility as they arise within a relationship. Moral response is individualized and is guided by the private norms of friendship, love, and care rather than by abstract rights and principles.cell theory all organic matter consists of cells, and cell activity is the essential process of life.clonal-selection theory of immunity immunologic specificity is preformed during embryonic life and mediated through cell clones.Cohnheim's theory tumors develop from embryonic rests that do not participate in the formation of normal surrounding tissue.community-based theory any ethical theory of health care according to which everything fundamental in ethics derives from communal values, the common good, social goals, traditional practices, and cooperative virtues. Commitment is to the general welfare, to common purposes, and to education of community members. Beliefs and principles, shared goals, and obligations are seen as products of the communal life. Conventions, traditions, and social solidarity play a prominent role in this type of theory. Called also communitarianism.consequence-based theory teleological theory.continuity theory a theory of motor development that postulates that motor changes occur in a linear fashion during an individual's life and that each change is dependent on the development of the prior period.deontological theory a type of ethical theory that maintains that some features of actions other than or in addition to consequences make the actions right or wrong. A major postulate is that we may not use or mistreat other people as a means to our own happiness or to that of others. Deontological theories guide action with a set of moral principles or moral rules, but it is the actions themselves and their moral properties that are fundamental. This theory is sometimes called the Kantian theory because the work of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) has a deep effect on its formulations.discontinuity theory each stage of motor development has a new and unique feature that is added to distinguish it from the previous stage.family systems theory a view of the family as a dynamic, interactive unit that undergoes continual evolvement in structure and function. There are subsystems that are discrete units (such as mother-father, sister-brother, and mother-child) and there is a suprasystem (the community). The main functions of the family are considered to be support, regulation, nurturance, and socialization; specific aspects of the functions change as the subsystems interact with the suprasystem.feminist theory a type of ethical theory whose core assumptions are that women's experiences have not been taken as seriously as men's experiences and that there is subordination of women, which must end. A central theme is that women's reality is a social construction and not a biological determination. See also praxis" >feminist praxis.gate theory (gate-control theory) neural impulses generated by noxious painful stimuli and transmitted to the spinal cord by small-diameter C-fibers and A-delta fibers are blocked at their synapses in the dorsal horn by the simultaneous stimulation of large-diameter myelinated A-fibers, thus inhibiting pain by preventing pain impulses from reaching higher levels of the central nervous system. The gate-control theory of pain. From Linton et al., 2000.general systems theory a theory of organization proposed by Ludwig von Bertalanffy in the 1950s as a means by which various disciplines could communicate with one another and duplication of efforts among scientists could be avoided. The theory sought universally applicable principles and laws that would hold true regardless of the kind of system under study, the nature of its components, or the interrelationships among its components. Since the introduction of the general systems theory, theoretical models, principles, and laws have been developed that are of great value to scientists in all fields, including those of medicine, nursing, and other health-related professions.germ theory 1. all organisms are developed from a cell.2. infectious diseases are of microbial origin.theory of human becoming a theory of nursing formulated by Rosemarie Rizzo parse. Principles of Martha Rogers' science of unitary human beings are synthesized with major tenets and concepts from existential phenomenological thought to create a conceptual system and theory. Major areas of focus, rooted in the human sciences, describe the unitary human being interrelating with the universe in co-creating health. Essential concepts include the human-universe-health interrelationship, the co-creating of health, and the freely choosing of meaning in becoming. Humans are unitary beings mutually co-creating rhythmical patterns of relating in open interchange with the universe. The human being is a unity of the subject-world relationship, participating with the world in co-creation of self.
Health, in this theory, is a continuously changing process that humans participate in co-creating. Health is human becoming. It is not the opposite of disease, nor is it a state that exists. Disease is viewed as a pattern of the human being's interrelationship with the world. Nursing is both science and art. The science is nursing's abstract body of knowledge lived through the art in service to people. Three principles of this theory comprise the abstract knowledge base used to guide nursing research and practice. The principles of structuring meaning multidimensionally, co-creating rhythmical patterns of relating, and co-transcending with the possibles provide the underpinnings for practice and research. There is a particular nursing practice methodology, the only one that evolves directly from a nursing theory. Parse's practice methodology specifies that the nurse be truly present with the person and family illuminating meaning, synchronizing rhythms, and mobilizing transcendence. Persons choose their own patterns of health, reflective of their values. The nurse is there with the person and family as they uncover meanings and make decisions about their life situations. True presence is an unconditional love grounded in the belief that individuals know the way. Parse has also constructed a research methodology congruent with her theory and unique to nursing. Her research methodology offers the researcher the opportunity to study universal lived experiences from the perspective of the people living the experiences. The purpose of her basic research method is to uncover the meaning of lived experiences to enhance the knowledge base of nursing. Parse has contributed to nursing science a theory with congruent practice and research methodologies.theory of human caring a nursing theory formulated by Jean watson, derived from the values and assumptions of metaphysical, phenomenological-existential, and spiritual conceptual orientations. The primary concepts of the theory, transpersonal human caring and caring transactions, are multidimensional giving and receiving responses between a nurse and another person. Transpersonal human caring implies a special kind of relationship where both the nurse and the other have a high regard for the whole person in a process of being and becoming. Caring transactions provide a coming together in a lived moment, an actual caring occasion that involves choice and action by both the nurse and another.
Person (other) is defined as an experiencing and perceiving “being in the world,” possessing three spheres; mind, body, and soul. Person is also defined as a living growing gestalt with a unique phenomenal field of subjective reality. The environment includes an objective physical or material world and a spiritual world. Watson defines the world as including all forces in the universe as well as a person's immediate environment. Critical to this definition is the concept of transcendence of the physical world that is bound in time and space, making contact with the emotional and spiritual world by the mind and soul. Health is more than the absence of disease. Health is unity and harmony within the mind, body, and soul and is related to the congruence between the self as perceived and the self as experienced. Nursing is defined as a human science and an activity of art, centered on persons and human health-illness experiences. The goal of nursing is to help persons gain a higher level of harmony within the mind, body and soul. Nursing practice is founded on the human-to-human caring process and a commitment to caring as a moral ideal. The activities of nursing are guided by Watson's ten carative factors, which offer a descriptive topology of interventions. The nursing process is incorporated in these carative factors as “creative problem-solving caring process,” a broad approach to nursing that seeks connections and relations rather than separations.information theory a mathematical theory dealing with messages or signals, the distortion produced by statistical noise, and methods of coding that reduce distortion to the irreducible minimum.information processing theory a theory of learning that focuses on internal, cognitive processes in which the learner is viewed as a seeker and processor of information.Kantian theory deontological theory.Lamarck's theory the theory that acquired characteristics may be inherited.Metchnikoff theory the theory that harmful elements in the body are attacked by phagocytes, causing inflammation; see also metchnikoff theory" >metchnikoff theory.middle range theory a testable theory that contains a limited number of variables, and is limited in scope as well, yet is of sufficient generality to be useful with a variety of clinical research questions.nursing theory 1. a framework designed to organize knowledge and explain phenomena in nursing, at a more concrete and specific level than a conceptual model or a metaparadigm.2. The study and development of theoretical frameworks in nursing.obligation-based theory deontological theory.quantum theory radiation and absorption of energy occur in quantities (quanta) that vary in size with the frequency of the radiation.recapitulation theory ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny; see also recapitulation theory.rights-based theory a type of ethical theory under which the language of rights provides the basic terminology for ethical and political theory; it maintains that a democratic society must protect individuals and allow all to pursue personal goals. The idea of primacy of rights has been strongly disputed by, for example, utilitarians and Marxists. Individual interests often conflict with communal or institutional interests, as has been seen in efforts to reform the health care system. A prominent rights-based theory is what is known as liberal individualism.teleological theory a type of ethical theory that takes judgments of the value of the consequences of action as basic. Utilitarianism is the most prominent consequence-based theory; it accepts one and only one basic principle of ethics, the principle of utility, which asserts that we ought always to produce the maximal balance of positive value over negative consequences (or the least possible negative consequence, if only undesirable results can be achieved).Young-Helmholtz theory the theory that color vision depends on three sets of retinal receptors, corresponding to the colors of red, green, and violet.the·o·ry (thē'ŏ-rē), A reasoned explanation of known facts or phenomena that serves as a basis of investigation by which to seek the truth. See also: hypothesis, postulate. [G. theōria, a beholding, speculation, theory, fr. theōros, a beholder] theory (thē′ə-rē, thîr′ē)n. pl. theo·ries 1. A set of statements or principles devised to explain a group of facts or phenomena, especially one that has been repeatedly tested or is widely accepted and can be used to make predictions about natural phenomena.2. The branch of a science or art consisting of its explanatory statements, accepted principles, and methods of analysis, as opposed to practice: a fine musician who had never studied theory.3. A set of theorems that constitute a systematic view of a branch of mathematics.4. Abstract reasoning; speculation: a decision based on experience rather than theory.5. A belief or principle that guides action or assists comprehension or judgment: staked out the house on the theory that criminals usually return to the scene of the crime.6. An assumption based on limited information or knowledge; a conjecture.theory A hypothesis or explanation of a phenomenon based on available data Statistics A general statement predicting, explaining, or describing the relationships among a number of constructsthe·o·ry (thē'ŏr-ē) A reasoned explanation of known facts or phenomena that serves as a basis of investigation by which to reach the truth. See also: hypothesis, postulate[G. theōria, a beholding, speculation, theory, fr. theōros, a beholder]theory see SCIENTIFIC METHOD.theory An explanation of the manner in which a phenomenon occurs, has occurred, or will occur. Bielschowsky's theory See theories of strabismus. biological-statistical theory Theory of the development of refractive errors, based on the way in which the refractive components of the eye combine. It postulates a high correlation between the normally distributed refractive components to produce emmetropia. A breakdown of this correlation leads to ametropia. This theory depends essentially on hereditary factors. See gene-environment interaction; myopia control; physiological myopia; emmetropization theory; use-abuse theory. Chavasse's theory See theories of strabismus. corpuscular theory See Newton's theory. Donders' theory See theories of strabismus. Duane's theory See theories of strabismus. duplicity theory The theory that vision is mediated by two independent photoreceptor systems in the retina: diurnal or photopic vision through the cones when the eyes see details and colours; and nocturnal or scotopic vision through the rods when the eyes see at very low levels of luminance. It can be illustrated when establishing a dark adaptation curve (sensitivity as a function of time), which is preceded by a bright pre-adaptation stimulus. The curve typically has two branches: and initial increase in sensitivity (i.e. lower light threshold) followed by a plateau, due to cone adaptation; then another increase in sensitivity followed by a plateau due to rod adaptation. See photochromatic interval; Purkinje shift; two visual systems theory; photopic vision; scotopic vision. emission theory See Newton's theory. emmetropization theory A theory that explains the phenomenon of emmetropization on a biofeedback mechanism, involving cortical and subcortical control of the various components of the eye that contribute to its refractive power. empiricist theory Theory that certain aspects of behaviour, perception, development of ametropia, etc. depend on environmental experience and learning, and are not inherited. See empiricism; nativist theory. Fincham's theory Theory of accommodation which attributes the increased convexity of the front surface of the crystalline lens, when accommodating, to the elasticity of the capsule and to the fact that it is thinner in the pupillary area than near the periphery of the lens. See capsule; Helmholtz's of accommodation theory. first order theory See gaussian theory. gaussian theory The theory that for tracing paraxial rays through an optical system, that system can be considered as having six cardinal planes: two principal planes, two nodal planes and two focal planes. The mathematical analysis can be carried out by the paraxial equation. Syn. first order theory; paraxial theory. See Newton's formula; paraxial optics; fundamental paraxial equation; paraxial ray. von Graefe's theory See theories of strabismus. Helmholtz's theory of accommodation The theory that in accommodation the ciliary muscle contracts, relaxing the tension on the zonule of Zinn while the shape of the crystalline lens changes, resulting in increased convexity, especially of the anterior surface. Fincham's theory complements that of Helmholtz. See accommodation; Fincham's theory; zonule of Zinn. Helmholtz's theory of colour vision See Young-Helmholtz theory. Hering's theory of colour vision Theory that colour vision results from the action of three independent mechanisms, each of which is made up of a mutually antagonistic pair of colour sensations: red-green, yellow-blue and white-black. The latter pair is supposed to be responsible for the brightness aspect of the sensation, whereas the former two would be responsible for the coloured aspect of the sensation. Syn. opponent-process theory; tetrachromatic theory. See colour-opponent cells; Young-Helmholtz theory. van der Hoeve's theory See theories of strabismus. Huygen's theory See wave theory. Landolt's theory See theories of strabismus. lattice theory See Maurice's theory. Luneburg's theory A theory according to which the geometry of the visual space is described by a variable non-euclidean hyperbolic metric. Mackenzie's theory See theories of strabismus. Maurice's theory Theory that explains the transparency of the stroma of the cornea. It states that the stromal fibrils, which have a refractive index of about 1.55 in the dry state, are so arranged as to behave as a series of diffraction gratings permitting transmission through the liquid ground substance (refractive index 1.34). The fibrils are the grating elements that are arranged in a hexagonal lattice pattern of equal spacing and with the fibril interval being less than the wavelength of light. The diffraction gratings eliminate scattered light by destructive interference, except for the normally incident light rays. Light beams that are not normal to the cornea are also transmitted to the oblique lattice plane. However, recent work has demonstrated inconsistencies in lattice space and there is some modification to the original postulate of this theory. Syn. lattice theory. nativist theory Theory that certain aspects of behaviour, perception, development of ametropia, etc. are inherited and independent of environmental experience. See gene-environment interaction; nativism; empiricist theory. Newton's theory The theory that light consists of minute particles radiated from a light source at a very high velocity. Syn. corpuscular theory; emission theory. See quantum theory; wave theory. Nordlow's theory See theories of strabismus. opponent-colour theory See Hering's of colour vision theory. paraxial theory See gaussian theory. Parinaud's theory See theories of strabismus. Planck's theory See quantum theory. quantum theory Theory that radiant energy consists of intermittent and spasmodic, minute indivisible amounts called quanta (or photons). This is a somewhat modern version of the theory originally proposed by Newton. Syn. Planck's theory. See photon; Newton's theory; wave theory. Scobee's theory See theories of strabismus. theory of strabismus See theories of strabismus. three-component theory See Young- Helmholtz theory. trichromatic theory See Young-Helmholtz theory. two visual systems theory The theory that there are two distinct modes of processing visual information: one pertaining to the identification (or 'what' system) and the other to localization (or 'where' system) of visual stimuli. The identification mode is concerned with resolution and pattern vision, and is associated with the foveal and parafoveal regions of the retina. It is subserved by primary cortical mechanisms. The localization mode is concerned with motion and orientation and is subserved by midbrain visual structures. See magnocellular visual system; parvocellular visual system; duplicity theory. use-abuse theory Theory that attributes the onset of myopia to an adaptation to the use or misuse of the eyes in prolonged close work with the concomitant lag of accommodation and hyperopic defocus. Environmental factors would be the main cause of myopia. See myopia control; biological-statistical theory. wave theory Theory that light is propagated as continuous waves. This theory was quantified by the Maxwell equations. The wave theory of light can satisfactorily account for the observed facts of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization. However, the interchange of energy between radiation and matter, absorption and the photoelectric effect are explained by the quantum theory. Both the wave and quantum theories of light were combined by the concept of quantum mechanics, and light is now considered to consist of quanta travelling in a manner that can be described by a waveform. Syn. Huygens' theory. See photon; quantum theory; wavelength. Worth's theory See theories of strabismus. Young-Helmholtz theory The theory that colour vision is due to a combination of the responses of three independent types of retinal receptors whose maximum sensitivities are situated in the blue, green and red regions of the visible spectrum. This theory has been shown to be correct, except that the pigment in the third receptor has a maximum sensitivity in the yellow and not in the red region of the spectrum. Hering's theory of colour vision, which explains phenomena at a level higher than that of the cone receptors, complements this theory. Syn. Helmholtz's theory of colour vision; three components theory; trichromatic theory. See visual pigment; Hering's of colour vision theory.
Table T1 Main characteristics of the photopic and scotopic visual system | | | photopic vision | | scotopic vision | type of vision | | diurnal (above 10 cd/m2) | | nocturnal (below 1023cd/m2) | photoreceptor | | cones | | rods | max. receptor density | | fovea | | 20º from fovea | photopigment(s) (and max. absorption) | | long-wave sensitive (560 nm) | | rhodopsin (507 nm) | | | middle-wave sensitive (530 nm) | | | | | short-wave sensitive (420 nm) | | | colour vision | | present | | absent | light sensitivity | | low | | high | dark adaptation: | | | | | time to cone threshold | | about 10 min | | | time to rod threshold (about 3 log units below) | | | | about 35 min | max. spectral sensitivity | | 555 nm | | 507 nm | spatial resolution (visual acuity) | | Excellent | | Poor | spatial summation | | poor | | excellent | temporal resolution (critical fusion frequency) | | excellent | | poor | temporal summation | | poor | | excellent | Stiles-Crawford effect | | present | | absent |
the·o·ry (thē'ŏr-ē) Reasoned explanation of known facts or phenomena that serves as a basis of investigation by which to seek truth. [G. theōria, a beholding, speculation, theory, fr. theōros, a beholder]Patient discussion about theoryQ. I know I’m supposed to drink 8-10 cups of water a day – but I feel it’s too much for me. I try to drink 8 cups a day but I just can’t continue with it long, I just find myself going to the bathroom every 30 minutes. Any idea?A. when people thought of this genius theory of drinking 10 cups a day they didn’t take in consideration the amount of water we get from our food, the idea that people working construction need more then 8 cups, that people that work in an air conditioned office and don’t tend to move around too much don’t perspire as well as construction workers. They just took the average data- we loose this amount of water, so we need to replace it. You should listen to your body and not to wise guys. More discussions about theoryFinancialSeeAttribution Theorytheory Related to theory: Chaos theory, game theory, quantum theory, scientific theory, theory of evolution, theory of relativity, Conflict theory, Nursing theorySynonyms for theorynoun hypothesisSynonyms- hypothesis
- philosophy
- system of ideas
- plan
- system
- science
- scheme
- proposal
- principles
- ideology
- thesis
Antonyms- fact
- experience
- practice
- reality
- certainty
noun beliefSynonyms- belief
- feeling
- speculation
- assumption
- guess
- hunch
- presumption
- conjecture
- surmise
- supposition
phrase in theorySynonyms- in principle
- on paper
- in an ideal world
- in the abstract
- hypothetically
- all things being equal
Synonyms for theorynoun abstract reasoningSynonymsnoun a belief used as the basis for actionSynonymsnoun something taken to be true without proofSynonyms- assumption
- postulate
- postulation
- premise
- presupposition
- supposition
- thesis
Synonyms for theorynoun a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural worldRelated Words- reductionism
- explanation
- law of nature
- law
- hypothesis
- theory
- possibility
- blastogenesis
- preformation
- theory of preformation
- scientific theory
- field theory
- economic theory
- atomist theory
- atomistic theory
- atomic theory
- atomism
- holism
- holistic theory
- structural sociology
- structuralism
- structural anthropology
noun a tentative insight into the natural worldSynonymsRelated Words- concept
- conception
- construct
- hypothetical
- gemmule
- framework
- model
- theoretical account
- conjecture
- speculation
- supposal
- supposition
- assumption
- theory
- historicism
noun a belief that can guide behaviorRelated Words- belief
- egoism
- patchwork
- hodgepodge
- jumble
|