Seven Weeks War

(Russian title: Austro-Prussian War of 1866), a war that ended the long-standing rivalry between Prussia and Austria for dominance in Germany; it was also an important stage in Germany’s unification “from above” under the hegemony of Junker-bourgeois Prussia. After Prussia’s victory in the Danish war (1864), Bismarck, who in 1862 became head of the Prussian government, effected the signing of the Gastein Convention (Aug. 14, 1865), according to which Schleswig was ruled by Prussia and Hol-stein by Austria. Preparing for war with Austria, Bismarck succeeded in securing the neutrality of Russia and France. Prussia’s diplomatic preparation for the war was completed with the signing of a treaty of alliance with Italy on Apr. 8, 1866. The direct cause of the war with Austria was the dispute over Schleswig and Holstein. Bismarck provoked armed conflict by moving Prussian troops into Holstein and by sending the German states on June 10 his plan for the reform of the German Confederation, which stipulated the exclusion of Austria. On the proposal of Austria, supported by the majority of the small German states, the Diet of the German Confederation decided on June 14 to mobilize the army of the confederation against Prussia. Austria’s formal declaration of war came on June 17, the day after the Prussians began invading Hannover, Hesse, and Saxony.

Austria had to fight on two fronts—in Italy and Bohemia. A number of German states, including Bavaria and Saxony, sided with Austria but were unable to give it any practical help. Prussia surpassed Austria in industrial development, and its relatively extensive railroad network ensured swift military transport. The Prussian infantry was armed with breech-loading Dreyse needle guns, whose rate of fire was triple that of the muzzle-loading Austrian rifles. Since Austria had to detach substantial forces (80,000 men by the start of the war) to the Italian front, the Prussians had a certain numerical superiority on the Bohemian front—278,000 men against 261,000 men of the Austrian Northern Army, which included the Saxon corps that had retreated into Bohemia. Bavaria, Austria’s ally, had sent no troops into Bohemia. King William I headed the Prussian Army, but the operations were in fact directed by H. Moltke (the Elder). The Austrian Northern Army was commanded by General L. Benedek, who proved to be an extremely poor commander.

In the so-called Main River theater of operations—Hannover, Hesse, and the Frankfort sector— the Prussian troops quickly scored successes, after which they quickened their offenses in Bohemia. Strategic deployment against Saxony and Austria was effected in an arc exceeding 250 km by three armies: the Second Army, commanded by Crown Prince Frederick William, in Silesia between Breslau (Wrocaw) and the Neisse (Nysa) River; the First Army, commanded by Prince Frederick Charles, in the vicinity of Gorlitz; and the Elbe Army, under General von Bittenfeld, in the vicinity of Torgau. Subsequently, the Elbe Army came under the command of Frederick Charles. The main force of the Austrian Northern Army, at first concentrated in the fortified region of Olmütz (Olomouc) moved on June 18 into Bohemia, into the region of the Josefstadt (Jaromer) and Kóniggrátz (Hradec Kralove) fortresses. On June 22 the Prussian high command issued instructions for the concentric invasion of Bohemia that called for linking in the region of Gitschin (Jičín). The slow advance of the Austrian forces enabled the Prussians to get through the mountain passes. In a number of battles, mainly encounter engagements, the Prussian troops proved successful. The Austrian army retreated toward Josefstadt and subsequently toward Königgrätz. The decisive battle was fought on July 3 in the region of Sadowa-Königgrätz by 221,000 Prussians and 215,000 Austrians. The Prussians forced the Austrians into disorderly retreat. The Austrian losses in dead, wounded, and prisoners amounted to 44,000 men—almost five times more than Prussian losses. However, the Prussian command allowed the Austro-Saxon forces to break away from the enemy. Benedek led the remaining troops toward Olmütz, assigning only a weak covering force for the Vienna sector. The Prussians renewed their advance: the Second Army marched on Olmütz and the First Army and the Elbe Army on Vienna. Finding itself in this critical situation, Austria began transferring its troops from Italy, where they had achieved a number of victories, to the north and on July 13 replaced Benedek with Archduke Albert. Austria still had the means to organize resistance against the enemy at the approaches to Vienna and Pressburg (Bratislava), but the internal situation in the empire, especially the threat of Hungary’s secession, forced the government of Francis Joseph to sue for peace. This is what Bismarck strove for, in spite of the opposition of William I and Moltke, for he saw in Austria a possible future ally and was ready at the present stage to limit himself to Austria’s exclusion from the German Confederation. The French government, fearing an excessive weakening of Austria, was also interested in seeing the war come to an end. On July 26 a preliminary peace was signed in Nikols-burg, and on August 23 the peace treaty was signed in Prague.

The main political result of the war was the formation of the North German Confederation under the supremacy of militaristic Prussia. Prussia considerably expanded its territory at the expense of the small German states and concluded a secret military agreement with the southern German states. Austria remained outside the confederation, and Venetia was ceded to Italy.