art

ART

abbr. antiretroviral therapy

art¹

A0440900 (ärt)n.1. a. The conscious use of the imagination in the production of objects intended to be contemplated or appreciated as beautiful, as in the arrangement of forms, sounds, or words.b. Such activity in the visual or plastic arts: takes classes in art at the college.c. Products of this activity; imaginative works considered as a group: art on display in the lobby.2. A field or category of art, such as music, ballet, or literature.3. A nonscientific branch of learning; one of the liberal arts.4. A skill that is attained by study, practice, or observation: the art of negotiation. See Synonyms at skill.5. a. arts Artful devices, stratagems, and tricks.b. Artful contrivance; cunning.6. Printing Illustrative material, especially in contrast to text.

[Middle English, from Old French, from Latin ars, art-; see ar- in Indo-European roots.]

art²

A0441000 (ərt; ärt when stressed)v. Archaic A second person singular present indicative of be.

[Middle English, from Old English eart; see er- in Indo-European roots.]

art

(ɑːt) n1. (Art Terms) a. the creation of works of beauty or other special significanceb. (as modifier): an art movement. 2. the exercise of human skill (as distinguished from nature)3. (Art Terms) imaginative skill as applied to representations of the natural world or figments of the imagination4. (Art Terms) a. the products of man's creative activities; works of art collectively, esp of the visual arts, sometimes also music, drama, dance, and literatureb. (as modifier): an art gallery. See also arts, fine art5. (Art Terms) excellence or aesthetic merit of conception or execution as exemplified by such works6. (Art Terms) any branch of the visual arts, esp painting7. (Art Terms) (modifier) intended to be artistic or decorative: art needlework. 8. (Art Terms) a. any field using the techniques of art to display artistic qualities: advertising art. b. (as modifier): an art film. 9. (Journalism & Publishing) journalism photographs or other illustrations in a newspaper, etc10. method, facility, or knack: the art of threading a needle; the art of writing letters. 11. the system of rules or principles governing a particular human activity: the art of government. 12. artfulness; cunning13. get something down to a fine art to become highly proficient at something through practice[C13: from Old French, from Latin ars craftsmanship]

art

(ɑːt) vbarchaic (used with the pronoun thou) a singular form of the present tense (indicative mood) of be¹[Old English eart, part of bēon to be]

ART

abbreviation for (Medicine) assisted reproductive technology

art¹

(ɑrt)

n. 1. the quality, production, expression, or realm of what is beautiful or of more than ordinary significance. 2. the class of objects subject to aesthetic criteria, as paintings, sculptures, or drawings. 3. a field or category of art: Dance is an art. 4. the fine arts collectively. 5. any field using the skills or techniques of art: industrial art. 6. (in printed matter) illustrative or decorative material. 7. the principles or methods governing any craft or branch of learning: the art of baking. 8. the craft or trade using these principles or methods. 9. skill in conducting any human activity: the art of conversation. 10. a branch of learning or university study, esp. one of the fine arts or the humanities, as music, philosophy, or literature. 11. arts, a. (used with a sing. v.) the humanities. b. (used with a pl. v.) liberal arts. 12. skilled workmanship, execution, or agency, as distinguished from nature. 13. trickery; cunning. 14. studied action; artificiality in behavior. 15. an artifice or artful device: the arts of politics. 16. Archaic. science; learning. [1175–1225; Middle English < Old French, acc. of ars < Latin ars (nominative), artem (acc.)]

art²

(ɑrt)
v. Archaic.2nd pers. sing. pres. indic. of be. [before 950; Middle English; Old English eart=ear- (see are¹) + -t ending of 2nd pers. singular]

-art

var. of -ard: braggart.

art.

pl. arts for 1. 1. article. 2. artillery. 3. artist.

art

- Comes from a base word meaning "put together"; its original general meaning referred to any kind of skill.See also related terms for skilled.

Art

See also architecture; drawing; engraving; images; ornamentation; skill and craft.
Abstract Expressionisma spontaneous, intuitive painting technique producing nonformal work characterized by sinuous lines. Also called Action Painting.abstractionismthe creation of abstract art. — abstractionist, n., adj.Abstractisma nonrepresentational style in painting or sculpture.acrographyetching in relief; the opposite of engraving.Action PaintingAbstract Expressionism.aestheticism1. the doctrine that aesthetic standards are autonomous and not subject to political, moral, or religious criteria.
2. used pejoratively to describe those who believe only in “art for art’s sake,” to the exclusion of all other human activities.allegoryan art form, as a story, painting, or sculpture, in which the components have a symbolic, figurative meaning. — allegorist, allegorizer, n. — allegorical, adj.anaglyphy1. the art of carving works in low relief.
2. a low-relief sculpture. Also spelled anaglyph. — anaglyphic, anaglyptic, adj.anaglyptographythe technique of making drawings and etchings that appear to be carved in low relief. — anaglyptographic, adj.anamorphisma distorted image of an object, as in anamorphic art. Also spelled anamorphosis, anamorphosy. — anamorphic, adj.anamorphoscopea cylindrical mirror for correcting the distorted image created by anamorphism.anamorphosisanamorphism.anamorphosyObsolete, anamorphism.aquarellistan artist who paints in water colors. Also called water-colorist.archaisma taste for and imitation of earlier styles, a recurrent phenomenon since ancient times based on the premise that earlier works were somehow purer and simpler. Cf. primitivism.architectonicsstructural design, especially of a work of art, as a painting or piece of music. See also philosophy.artistryartistic achievement, quality, or workmanship.autotelisma nonutilitarian theory of art holding that a work of art is an end in itself. — autotelic, adj.baroquea highly decorated form of art or ornamentation. — baroque, adj.charcoalistan artist who specializes in charcoal drawings or sketches.chinoiserieanything typically Chinese or made in a Chinese manner.cinquecentismthe revival in arts and letters in the sixteenth century in Italy. — cinquecentist, n., adj.classicism1. formerly, an imitation of Greek and Roman art.
2. currently, a dedication to the principles of that art: clarity of execution, balance, adherence to recognized standards of form, and conscious craftsmanship. — classicist, n. — classicistic, adj.coloristan artist who uses color or who is distinguished by the way in which he uses color.Cubisma movement in 20th-century painting in which several planes of an object in the form of cubes or other solids are presented in an arbitrary arrangement using a narrow range of colors or monochrome. — Cubist, n. — Cubistic, adj.culturista person who is well acquainted with culture, as literature, the arts, etc., and who advocates their worth to society.Dadaisma revolt by certain 20th-century painters and writers in France, Germany, and Switzerland against smugness in traditional art and Western society; their works, illustrating absurdity through paintings of purposeless machines and collages of discarded materials, expressed their cynicism about conventional ideas of form and their rejection of traditional concepts of beauty. — Dadaist, n.daubery, daubrya painting or other work executed in a messy or unskilled way. — dauber, daubster, n.diptycha work of art composed of two attached panels.divisionismthe use of small juxtaposed dots of color on a canvas. Cf. Pointillism. — divisionist, n., adj.duecentismthe art and literature of thirteenth-century Italy. — duecentist, n., adj.eclecticisma style that intermixes features borrowed from other artists or differing schools; applied especially when the result is unsuccessful. — eclecticist, n.esthetologythe study of the origin, development, and nature of the fine arts.exoticismthe condition of being foreign, striking, or unusual in color and design. — exoticist, n. — exotic, exotical, adj.Expressionisma movement in the 20th century that attempted to express feeling and emotion directly by distorting forms, choosing violent subject matter and harsh colors, and keeping the overall design out of balance. — Expressionist, n. — Expressionistic, adj.fantasticismthe literary or artistic use of fantasy. — fantastic, adj. — fantasticality, fantasticalness, n.Fauvisman early movement in 20th-century painting characterized by an emphasis on the use of unmixed bright colors for emotional and decorative effect. — Fauvist, n. — Fauve, n., adj.Futurisma movement of the 20th century attempting to capture in painting the movement, force, and speed of modern industrial life by the simultaneous representation of successive aspects of forms in motion. — Futurist, n. — Futuristic, adj.glyptothecaa room, building, or other place specifically used for the preservation of works of sculpture.Gothicismthe principles of the paintings, sculptures, stained glass, mosaics, and book illustrations of the period 1200-1450, embracing several disparate styles and emphases. — Gothicist, n.Hellenismthe forms and ideals of ancient Greek art. See also antiquity.iconologythe description, history, and analysis of symbolic art or artistic symbolism, especially that of the late medieval and Renaissance periods. Also called iconography. — iconologist, n. — iconological, adj.Impressionisma movement in the late 19th century in French painting, characterized by the goal of reproducing an impression of a subject by use of reflected light and color and the blurring of outlines. — Impressionist, n., adj. — Impressionistic, adj.Japonism, Japonismea style of art, idiom, custom, mannerism, etc., typical of the Japanese.landscapista painter of landscapes.luminarisma movement in painting concerned with precision in representing light and shade. — luminarist, n.luminism1. a movement in painting concerned with effects of light, especially the use of broken color in its full intensity with a minimum of shadow effects, applied especially to many Impressionist and Pointillist artists.
2. a technique of painting employing minute modulations of tone, developed in America (1825-65) by John Singer Sargent, Mary Cassatt, William Merritt Chase, and others. — luminist, n.mannerism1. an overemphasis on any distinctive technique of expression, occurring when the manner of expression obscures the feeling or idea expressed in the work of art; considered by many art critics to be a sign of decadence. — mannerist, n. — manneristic, adj.
2. (usu. cap.) a style, developed between c.1530 and c.1590, marked by deliberate violations of earlier standards of painting in depicting the artist’s idea rather than nature by means of asymmetrical and crowded compositions, elongated and twisted figures, and emphasis upon devices like foreshortening. The style also afïected both architecture and sculpture. — Mannerist, n.miniaturist1. Obsolete, an artist whose task it was to draw in red certain words or letters in manuscripts.
2. a painter of miniature pictures or portraits, as on china or ivory, characterized by fineness of detail.modernisma mode of expression or practice characteristic of modern times. — modernist, n. — modernistic, adj.monochromistone who paints or draws in shades or tints of a single color.monolitha sculpture or monument made from a single large block of stone, as an Egyptian obelisk. — monolithic, adj.Moresquedecoration or ornamentation in the Moorish style, distinguished by intricate tracery and bright colors. — Moresque, adj.Naturalismthe goal of artists who attempt to represent a subject without stylization or interpretation, and to create a mirror for natural beauty. Cf. Verism. Also called Realism. — Naturalist, n. — Naturalistic, adj.Neo-Classicisma European movement of the late 18th century differing from earlier classical revivals in that it deliberately and consciously imitated antique models such as those found between 1738-56 in Herculaneum, Paestum, and Pompeii. — Neo-Classicist, n. — Neo-Classic, Neo-Classical, adj.Neo-Hellenismthe practice of reviving Hellenism in modern art or life. — Neo-Hellenist, n. — Neo-Hellenistic, adj.Neo-ImpressionismPointillism.Neo-Plasticismthe art principle of de Still which represented form as horizontal and vertical lines and which excluded all colors except the primaries, black, and white.New Realisma term used to describe a trend away from abstract expressionism toward a subjective expressionism focusing on true-to-life forms, the factual, and easily evident forms.nocturnea painting of a night scene, a genre particularly favored by Whistler. See also music.nuditariana person who advocates the study of the nude body or figure.origamithe Japanese art of paper folding. — origamist, n.ornamentalism1. a use of ornament for decorative purposes, especially its overuse.
2. the employment of several traditional architectural and decorative features into the design of interiors, buildings, furniture, etc., influenced by Art Deco and Art Nouveau.ornamentist, ornamentalist1. an artist who specializes in ornamentation.
2. a person whose work is considered to be ornament rather than art.Orphisma short-lived development of Cubism c.1912 that attempted to enliven the original approach by subordinating the geometrical forms and using unmixed bright colors. — Orphist, n.pastelist, pastellistan artist who specializes in the use of pastels.paysagista painter of landscapes.phelloplasticsthe art of carving or sculpting in cork.pinacothecaa picture gallery or place where paintings are kept.plasticismthe theory or creation of plastic art.plein-airismthe practice of painting in the open air to obtain effects of light and atmosphere not possible in a studio, — plein-air, adj.Pointillisma style of the late 19th century based upon some Impressionist techniques and the application of scientific theories of the process of vision; begun by Seurat, who gave it the name Divisionism, it consists of using dots of unmixed color side by side so that the viewer’s eye may mix them into the appropriate intermediate color. Also called Neo-Impressionism. — Pointillist, n. — Pointillistic, adj.polychromythe art of using many or various colors in painting, architecture, etc. — polychromie, polychromatic, adj. — polychromatist, n.polyptycha work of art, as a painting, composed of several panels.Pop ArtBritish and American art movement of the 1960s which explored antitraditional and often antiesthetic means to present everyday objects and events.portraitistan artist who paints portraits.portraiture1. the process or art of painting portraits.
2. the portrait itself.
3. portraits collectively.Post-Impressionisma late 19th-century reaction to Impressionism, emphasizing on one hand the emotional aspect of painting and on the other a return to formal structure; the first led to Expressionism; the second, to Cubism. — Post-Impressionist, n.Pre-Raphaelitismthe principles of the 19th-century artists and writers who sought to restore the principles and practices thought to be characteristic of Italian art before Raphael. — Pre-Raphaelite, n., adj.prettyisma deliberate affection or triviality of expression in art or literature.primitivism1. the self-conscious return, for inspiration, to the archaic forms produced by non-Western cultures.
2. the practice of painting in a way alien to academic or traditional techniques, often displaying a highly individual naiveté in interpretation and treatment of subjects. Cf. archaism. — primitivist, n. — primitivistic, adj.pseudo-classicismthe imitative use of classicism in art and literature, especially shown during the 18th century. — pseudo-classic, adj. — pseudo-classical, adj.purismstrict adherence to particular concepts, rules, or ideals of form, style, etc., either as formulated by the artist or as dictated by a school with which the artist is allied. See also criticism; language. — purist, n., adj.pyrographythe art or process of burning designs on wood or leather, using heated tools. Also called pyrogravure. — pyrographer, n. — pyrographic, adj.quattrocentismthe art of fifteenth-century Italy. — quattrocentist, n., adj.Realism1. Naturalism.
2. a movement in the late 19th century stressing common rather than individual characteristics as the basis of reality. Cf. Verism. — Realist, n.representationalismthe practice of creating recognizable figures, objects, and natural forms in art. Cf. Abstractism.rhypography, rhyparographystill-life or genre painting, especially of trivial or sordid and unsuitable subjects.rococoOften Derogatory. an artistic and literary style, developed from the baroque, characterized by complex and elaborate ornamentation. — rococo, adj.Romanticismthe reflection, in art, of a late 18th-century literary and philosophical movement in reaction against the intellectuality and rationality of Neo-Classicism. It produced no single artistic style or characteristic but strongly influenced the ideals of imagination, emotion, and the freedom of expression in other media. — Romanticist, n.Russianismsomething characteristic of or influenced by Russia, its people, customs, language, etc.sensationalismthe act of shocking or intent to shock, especially through the media; the practice of using startling but superficial effects, in art, literature, etc., to gain attention. See also literature; media. — sensationalist, n.serigraphythe procedure of making prints through the silk-screen process. — serigrapher, n.socialist realisma Marxist-inspired artistic and literary theory or doctrine that calls on art and literature to promote the socialist cause and sees the artist, writer, etc. as a servant of the state or, in the words of Stalin, “the engineer of human souls.”statuary1. statues collectively or a group of statues.
2. the art of making statues. — statuary, adj.stereochromythe process of making stereochromes, pictures produced with water glass as a vehicle or preservative coating. Also called waterglass painting. — stereochromic, stereochromatic adj.stylisticsthe study of particular styles, as in art, literature, etc.Surrealism, Superrealisma controversial movement in art and literature between the two World Wars in which the artist attempted to portray, express, or interpret the workings of the subconscious mind; in painting it found expression in two techniques, the naturalistic (Dali) and the abstract (Miró). — Surrealist, n. — Surrealistic, adj.synchronisman American movement, founded in 1913, based upon Abstractism in unmixed color, usually involving disklike forms. — synchronist, n. — synchronistic, adj.Tachism, Tachismea movement of the early 1950s which claimed to be in revolt against both Abstractism and naturalism, taking its name from patches of color (Fr. taches) placed on canvas spontaneously and by chance, the result being considered an emotional projection rather than an expression or a symbol. Cf. Abstract Expressionism. — Tachist, Tachiste, n.tonalista painter who pays special attention to qualities of tone or tint in his work. See also music.toreumatologyRare. the study of the art of toreutics.toreuticsthe art of ivory- and metalworking, especially relief work, embossing, and chasing. — toreutic, adj.ultramodernismthe condition of being beyond the norm of modern. — ultra-modernist, n. — ultramodernistic, adj.Verisma naturalistic approach, especially in portraiture, in which every wrinkle and flaw of the subject is faithfully reproduced; extreme realism. Cf. Naturalism, Realism. — Verist, n. — Veristic, adj.Vorticisman art movement in England in 1914-15 stimulated by Futurism and by the idea that all artistic creation must begin in a state of strong emotion; its products, intended to establish a form characteristic of the industrial age, tend to use angular, machinelike shapes. — Vorticist, n.water-coloristaquarellist.

Thesaurus

Noun	1.	art - the products of human creativity; works of art collectively; "an art exhibition"; "a fine collection of art"fine artartistic creation, artistic production, art - the creation of beautiful or significant things; "art does not need to be innovative to be good"; "I was never any good at art"; "he said that architecture is the art of wasting space beautifully"artificial flower - a handmade imitation of a blossomcommercial art - art used for commercial purposes (as in advertising)creation - an artifact that has been brought into existence by someonecyberart - art that is produced with the help of computer hardware and softwaredecoupage - art produced by decorating a surface with cutouts and then coating it with several layers of varnish or lacquerdiptych - a painting or carving (especially an altarpiece) on two panels (usually hinged like a book)gem, treasure - art highly prized for its beauty or perfectiongenre - a class of art (or artistic endeavor) having a characteristic form or techniquegraphic art - the arts of drawing or painting or printmakinggrotesque - art characterized by an incongruous mixture of parts of humans and animals interwoven with plantskitsch - excessively garish or sentimental art; usually considered in bad tastemosaic - art consisting of a design made of small pieces of colored stone or glassplastic art - the arts of shaping or modeling; carving and sculpturetriptych - art consisting of a painting or carving (especially an altarpiece) on three panels (usually hinged together)work of art - art that is a product of one of the fine arts (especially a painting or sculpture of artistic merit)dance - an artistic form of nonverbal communication
	2.	art - the creation of beautiful or significant things; "art does not need to be innovative to be good"; "I was never any good at art"; "he said that architecture is the art of wasting space beautifully"artistic creation, artistic productioncreation, creative activity - the human act of creatingarts and crafts - the arts of decorative design and handicraft; "they sponsored arts and crafts in order to encourage craftsmanship in an age of mass production"ceramics - the art of making and decorating potterydecalcomania - the art of transfering designs from specially prepared paper to a wood or glass or metal surfacedecoupage - the art of decorating a surface with shapes or pictures and then coating it with vanish or lacquerdraftsmanship, drawing, drafting - the creation of artistic pictures or diagrams; "he learned drawing from his father"glyptography - carving or engraving (especially on stones)gastronomy - the art and practice of choosing and preparing and eating good foodorigami - the Japanese art of folding paper into shapes representing objects (e.g., flowers or birds)painting - creating a picture with paints; "he studied painting and sculpture for many years"perfumery - the art of making perfumesprintmaking - artistic design and manufacture of prints as woodcuts or silkscreenssculpture, carving - creating figures or designs in three dimensionstopiary - making decorative shapes by trimming shrubs or treesAmericana - any artifact (such as books or furniture or art) that is distinctive of Americaart, fine art - the products of human creativity; works of art collectively; "an art exhibition"; "a fine collection of art"ground - (art) the surface (as a wall or canvas) prepared to take the paint for a paintingtalaria - a winged sandal (as worn by Hermes in Graeco-Roman art)vocabulary - the system of techniques or symbols serving as a means of expression (as in arts or crafts); "he introduced a wide vocabulary of techniques"aesthetics, esthetics - (art) the branch of philosophy dealing with beauty and taste (emphasizing the evaluative criteria that are applied to art); "traditional aesthetics assumed the existence of universal and timeless criteria of artistic value"cinema, film, celluloid - a medium that disseminates moving pictures; "theater pieces transferred to celluloid"; "this story would be good cinema"; "film coverage of sporting events"expressive style, style - a way of expressing something (in language or art or music etc.) that is characteristic of a particular person or group of people or period; "all the reporters were expected to adopt the style of the newspaper"tout ensemble, ensemble - an assemblage of parts or details (as in a work of art) considered as forming a wholeexpo, exposition, exhibition - a collection of things (goods or works of art etc.) for public displayauthenticator, appraiser - one who determines authenticity (as of works of art) or who guarantees validityidealogue, theoretician, theoriser, theorist, theorizer - someone who theorizes (especially in science or art)tension - a balance between and interplay of opposing elements or tendencies (especially in art or literature); "there is a tension created between narrative time and movie time"; "there is a tension between these approaches to understanding history"doldrums, stagnation, stagnancy - a state of inactivity (in business or art etc); "economic growth of less than 1% per year is considered to be economic stagnation"longueur - a period of dullness or boredom (especially in a work of literature or performing art)finger-paint - apply colors with one's fingersfresco - paint onto wet plaster on a walldistemper - paint with distemperilluminate - add embellishments and paintings to (medieval manuscripts)miniate, rubricate - decorate (manuscripts) with letters painted red; "In this beautiful book, all the place names are rubricated"blazon, emblazon - decorate with heraldic armssculpt, sculpture - create by shaping stone or wood or any other hard material; "sculpt a swan out of a block of ice"paint - make a painting of; "He painted his mistress many times"paint - make a painting; "he painted all day in the garden"; "He painted a painting of the garden"repaint - paint again; "He repainted the same scenery many times during his life"charge - place a heraldic bearing on; "charge all weapons, shields, and banners"interpret, represent - create an image or likeness of; "The painter represented his wife as a young girl"depict, picture, show, render - show in, or as in, a picture; "This scene depicts country life"; "the face of the child is rendered with much tenderness in this painting"illustrate - depict with an illustrationstylise, stylize, conventionalize - represent according to a conventional style; "a stylized female head"
	3.	art - a superior skill that you can learn by study and practice and observation; "the art of conversation"; "it's quite an art"artistry, prowessairmanship, aviation - the art of operating aircrafteristic - the art of logical disputation (especially if specious)falconry - the art of training falcons to hunt and returnfortification - the art or science of strengthening defenseshomiletics - the art of preachinghorology - the art of designing and making clocksminstrelsy - the art of a minstrelmusicianship - artistry in performing musicenology, oenology - the art of wine makingpuppetry - the art of making puppets and presenting puppet showstaxidermy - the art of mounting the skins of animals so that they have lifelike appearancetelescopy - the art of making and using telescopesventriloquism, ventriloquy - the art of projecting your voice so that it seems to come from another source (as from a ventriloquist's dummy)superior skill - more than ordinary ability
	4.	art - photographs or other visual representations in a printed publication; "the publisher was responsible for all the artwork in the book"artwork, graphics, nontextual matterpublication - a copy of a printed work offered for distributionvisual communication - communication that relies on visionillustration - artwork that helps make something clear or attractivedrawing - an illustration that is drawn by hand and published in a book, magazine, or newspaper; "it is shown by the drawing in Fig. 7"

art

noun1. artwork, style of art, fine art, creativity the first exhibition of such art in the West2. skill, knowledge, method, facility, craft, profession, expertise, competence, accomplishment, mastery, knack, ingenuity, finesse, aptitude, artistry, artifice (archaic), virtuosity, dexterity, cleverness, adroitness the art of seduction and romanceQuotations
"Art is a jealous mistress" [Ralph Waldo Emerson Conduct of Life]
"All art constantly aspires towards the condition of music" [Walter Pater Studies in the History of the Renaissance]
"Art is a lie that makes us realise the truth" [Pablo Picasso]
"Life is short, the art long" [Hippocrates Aphorisms]
"Art does not reproduce the visible; rather, it makes visible" [Paul Klee Inward Vision]
"Art is a revolt against fate" [André Malraux Les Voix du silence]
"Art is...pattern informed by sensibility" [Herbert Read The Meaning of Art]
"We must have ... art for art's sake ... the beautiful cannot be the way to what is useful, or to what is good, or to what is holy; it leads only to itself" [Victor Cousin Sorbonne lecture, 1818]
"Art is meant to disturb. Science reassures" [Georges Braque Pensées sur l'art]
"True art selects and paraphrases, but seldom gives a verbatim translation" [Thomas Bailey Aldrich Ponkapog Papers]
"Art enlarges experience by admitting us to the inner life of others" [Walter Lippmann The Golden Rule and After]

Art

Art styles and movements abstract expressionism, abstractionism, Art Deco, Arte Povera, Art Nouveau, Barbizon School, baroque, Der Blaue Reiter, Brücke, classicism, conceptual art, constructivism, cubism, Dada or Dadaism, De Stijl, divisionism, expressionism, Fauvism, futurism, Gothic, Impressionism, Jugendstil, mannerism, minimal art, modernism, Nabis, naturalism, Nazarene, neoclassicism, neoimpressionism, neoplasticism, op art, pointillism, pop art, postimpressionism, postmodernism, Pre-Raphaelite, realism, rococo, Romanesque, romanticism, Suprematism, surrealism, symbolism, synthetism, ukiyo-e, vorticismArt equipment acrylic, airbrush, brush, canvas, chalk, charcoal, crayon, drawing paper, easel, fixative, glaze, ground, ink, lay figure, linseed oil, oil paint, paint, paintbox, paintbrush, palette, palette knife, pastel, pencil, sketchbook, spatula, spray gun, varnish, watercolour

art

noun1. Activity pursued as a livelihood:business, calling, career, craft, employment, job, line, métier, occupation, profession, pursuit, trade, vocation, work.Slang: racket.Archaic: employ.2. Natural or acquired facility in a specific activity:ability, adeptness, command, craft, expertise, expertness, knack, mastery, proficiency, skill, technique.Informal: know-how.3. Deceitful cleverness:artfulness, artifice, craft, craftiness, cunning, foxiness, guile, slyness, wiliness.

Translations

艺术技术美术

art

(aːt) noun1. painting and sculpture. I'm studying art at school; Do you like modern art?; (also adjective) an art gallery, an art college.美术2. any of various creative forms of expression. painting, music, dancing, writing and the other arts.艺术3. an ability or skill; the (best) way of doing something. the art of conversation/war.技术ˈartful adjective clever; having a lot of skill (usually in a bad sense). an artful thief.狡猾的ˈartfully adverb狡猾地ˈartfulness noun狡猾arts noun plural (often with capital) languages, literature, history, as opposed to scientific subjects. 文科

art

→ 艺术zhCN

Art

Censorship

The suppression or proscription of speech or writing that is deemed obscene, indecent, or unduly controversial.

The term censorship derives from the official duties of the Roman censor who, beginning in 443 b.c., conducted the census by counting, assessing, and evaluating the populace. Originally neutral in tone, the term has come to mean the suppression of ideas or images by the government or others with authority.

Throughout history, societies practiced various forms of censorship in the belief that the community, as represented by the government, was responsible for molding the individual. For example, the ancient Greek philosopher Plato advocated various degrees of censorship in The Republic; the content of important texts and the dissemination of knowledge were tightly controlled in ancient Chinese society as is much information in modern China; and for centuries the Roman Catholic Church's Index Librorum Prohibitorum proscribed much literature as contrary to the church's teachings.

The English-speaking world began wrestling with issues of censorship in the seventeenth century. In his Areopagitica (1644), John Milton argued in favor of the right to publish, free from government restraint. In the United States, the First Amendment to the Constitution (1787) guarantees Freedom of Speech and Freedom of the Press. When a U.S. government agency attempts to prohibit speech or writing, the party being censored frequently raises these First Amendment rights. Such cases usually involve communication that the government perceives as harmful to itself or the public.

Abortion

In some cases, the government can constitutionally censor the speech of those who receive federal funding. For example, the Supreme Court ruled in Rust v. Sullivan, 500 U.S. 173, 111 S. Ct. 1759, 114 L. Ed. 2d 233 (1991), that, without restricting First Amendment rights, the government can ban Abortion counseling in federally funded health clinics.

Prisoners' Mail

If the government's interest is penological it also has broader rights to censor speech. Prisoners' outgoing mail can be censored in order to thwart escape plans, shield the recipients from obscene or menacing letters, or circumvent inaccurate or adverse reports about prison conditions. Under the Supreme Court ruling in Procunier v. Martinez, 416 U.S. 396, 94 S. Ct. 1800, 40 L. Ed. 2d 224 (1974), prison administrators can censor prisoners' personal correspondence only if it is necessary to maintain security, order, or rehabilitation efforts. Such censorship can be neither random nor excessively troublesome.

Entertainment

Perhaps the most visible form of censorship is that affecting the entertainment industry. Theater and film, as types of public entertainment, affect the common interest and can hence be subjected to certain types of governmental regulation. But attempts to regulate or censor often risk obstructing the free speech rights of playwrights, screenwriters, filmmakers, performers, and distributors.

The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that it is lawful to censor obscene entertainment to safeguard children from Pornography and to protect adults from unknowingly or involuntarily viewing indecent materials (Ginsberg v. New York, 390 U.S. 629, 88 S. Ct. 1274, 20 L. Ed. 2d 195 [1968]). Although Supreme Court interpretation permits individuals to view Obscenity in the privacy of their homes (Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U.S. 557, 89 S. Ct. 1243, 22 L. Ed. 2d 542 [1969]), theaters and movie houses are public places and therefore subject to regulation (Paris Adult Theatre I v. Slaton, 413 U.S. 49, 93 S. Ct. 2628, 37 L. Ed. 2d 446 [1973]). The difficulty with such censorship is in trying to determine what is "obscene."

In miller v. california, 413 U.S. 15, 93 S. Ct. 2607, 37 L. Ed. 2d 419 (1973), the Supreme Court concluded that a work is obscene and can be regulated if it appeals to a viewer's prurient interest; portrays sexual conduct in a patently offensive way; and lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value. The Court further ruled that interpretations of this definition may vary across the United States and that communities may apply their own local standards to determine obscenity.

To avoid government censorship, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) regulates itself through a voluntary rating system. The system does not have statutory authority but is used to help the industry conform with statutes designed to protect children. Recognizing a 1968 Supreme Court decision that favored limited censorship for minors (Ginsberg v. New York, 390 U.S. 629, 88 S. Ct. 1274, 20 L. Ed. 2d 195), the MPAA devised a rating system based on the viewer's age. A G rating signals that subject matter is suitable for general audiences; PG stands for Parental Guidance Suggested; PG-13 strongly advises guidance for children under age 13 because of possibly inappropriate material; R requires accompaniment by an adult for children under age 17, or 18 in some states; and NC-17 or X prohibit anyone under age 17, or 18 in some states, from entering the theater.

Radio and television have also met with governmental pressure to control the content of their broadcasts. Spurred by the belief that violence on television adversely affects children's behavior and attitudes, Congress has attempted several times to encourage the media to adopt voluntary guidelines in the hope that less violence on television will lead to a less violent society. Although none of Congress's acts have been deemed outright censorship, government intrusion into broadcasting to discourage certain types of speech has not been welcomed by all. The various pieces of legislation raise questions about media self-censorship and the role of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in regulating freedom of expression.

In response to congressional pressure the National Association of Broadcasters adopted the Family Viewing Policy in 1974 to limit the first hour of prime-time programming to material suitable for families. The policy was found unconstitutional in 1976 (Writers Guild of America, West, Inc. v. F.C.C., 423 F. Supp. 1064 [C.D. Cal., 1976]).

Congress addressed the content of children's television with the Children's Television Act of 1990 (47 U.S.C.A. §§ 303a–303b [Supp. III 1991]), which limits the amount of advertising on children's television and compels broadcasters to air educational programs. Failure to comply with the act could jeopardize renewal of a station's license. Critics point out that the act has not improved children's programming because of its vague standards and the FCC's disinclination to enforce it.

The Television Violence Act (47 U.S.C.A. § 303c [Supp. III 1991]), proposed in 1986 by Senator Paul Simon (D-Ill.), was signed into law by President george h.w. bush in December 1990. This act, which expired in 1993, was intended to prompt the networks, cable industry, and independent stations to decrease the amount of violence shown on television. Although it did not constitute direct government regulation, the act was criticized as a governmental attempt to impose its values on society by discouraging, if not suppressing, unpopular ideas.The Telecommunications Act of 1996, 110 Stat. 56, required television manufacturers to create a chip, known as the V-chip, which allows users, presumably parents, to block out programs based on their sexual or violent content. The chip, which has been installed in television sets manufactured since 1999, operates in conjunction with a voluntary rating system implemented by TV broadcasters that rates programs for violence and sexual content.

Radio broadcasts have also come under scrutiny. In FCC v. Pacifica Foundation, 438 U.S. 726, 98 S. Ct. 3026, 57 L. Ed. 2d 1073 (1978), the Supreme Court ruled that a daytime broadcast of George Carlin's "Seven Dirty Words" monologue violated the prohibition of indecency in 18 U.S.C.A. § 1464 (1948) and was therefore subject to regulation. To many, this ruling gave the FCC further authority to censor speech and dictate values.

Music

Just as the entertainment industry has faced regulation or censorship for allegedly violent, obscene, or indecent material, so has the recording industry. Claiming that some popular music erodes morals by encouraging violence, drug abuse, and sexual promiscuity, the Parents' Music Resource Center, founded in 1985 by Tipper Gore, the wife of the future vice president, albert gore, successfully lobbied the music industry to place warning labels on records that may feature lyrics inappropriate for children.

Concerned about the rising rate of violent crime against law enforcement officers, the assistant director of public affairs for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) sent a letter in August 1989 to Priority Records to protest a rap group's lyrics. N.W.A., a Los Angeles-based rap group, recorded on its album Straight Outta Compton the song "Fuck tha Police," which violently protested police brutality. Although the letter from the FBI was a protest, not an attempt at regulation, many in the music industry interpreted it as an example of indirect censorship through intimidation.

Perhaps the most famous legal proceedings to censor music involved the rap group 2 Live Crew. In early 1990, a Florida circuit judge banned all sales of the group's album As Nasty As They Wanna Be on the grounds that the lyrics of several of its songs, including "Me So Horny," violated community standards for obscenity. The group brought suit to have the ban lifted in Skyywalker Records v. Navarro, 742 F. Supp. 638 (S.D. Fla. 1990), but the judge upheld the obscenity ruling. A record store owner was arrested for continuing to sell the album and two members of 2 Live Crew were arrested on obscenity charges after a performance. The band members were acquitted of all charges in October 1990, but the debate continues between those demanding free expression in music and those seeking to censor allegedly obscene material.

Art

For almost as long as artists have been creating art, governments have both supported and censored artists' work. Ancient Athens, the Roman Empire, and the medieval Catholic Church financed many projects, whereas totalitarian regimes, for example, banned many works and repressed artists. The U.S. Congress was reluctant to fund art that might subsequently be construed as national art, or as government-approved art until 1960s activism encouraged it to do so. In 1965, the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities was established to foster excellence in the arts. It is composed of two divisions, the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) and the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH). Among its many interests, the NEA provides stipends to deserving artists.

Controversy over the role of government support of the arts arose in the late 1980s with two artists who received NEA funding. In 1988, the photographer Andres Serrano received harsh condemnation for his photograph titled Piss Christ, which depicted a plastic crucifix floating in a jar of Serrano's urine. Numerous senators sent letters of protest to the NEA, insisting that the agency cease underwriting vulgar art. A second furor arose in 1989 over the work of another photographer, Robert Mapplethorpe, who received NEA support for his work, which depicted flowers, nude children, and homosexuality and sadomasochism.

Senator jesse helms (R-N.C.) argued the most vociferously against the NEA's choices and introduced legislation to ban funding of "obscene or indecent art" (1989 H.R. 2788 [codified at 20 U.S.C.A. § 953 et seq. (1989)]). The Helms Amendment, adopted in October 1989, gave the NEA great power and latitude to define obscenity and quash alternative artistic visions. To enforce the new amendment, the NEA established an "obscenity pledge," which required artists to promise they would not use government money to create works of an obscene nature. The art world strongly resisted this measure: many museum directors resigned in protest and several well-known artists returned their NEA grants.

Two important cases tested the power of the NEA to censor artistic production. In Bella Lewitsky Dance Foundation v. Frohnmayer, 754 F. Supp. 774 (C.D. Cal. 1991), a dance company refused to sign the obscenity pledge and sued on the ground that the pledge was unconstitutional. A California district court agreed that the pledge violated the First Amendment right to free speech and that its vagueness denied the dance company due process under the Fifth Amendment.

In New School v. Frohnmayer, No. 90-3510 (S.D.N.Y. 1990), the New School for Social Research, in New York City, turned down a grant, claiming that the obscenity pledge acted as Prior Restraint and therefore breached the school's First Amendment rights. Before the constitutionality of the prior restraint argument was decided, the NEA released the school from its obligation to sign the pledge.

The NEA abolished the obscenity pledge in November 1990, but in its place instituted a "decency clause" (1990 Amendments, Pub. L. No. 101-512, § 103(b), 104 Stat. 1963 [codified at 20 U.S.C.A. § 954(d)(1990)]), which required award recipients to ensure that their works met certain standards of decency. Failure to comply with this demand could mean suspension of grant payments.

Again the art world protested. In Finley v. NEA, 795 F. Supp. 1457 (C.D. Cal. 1992), artists known as the NEA Four—Karen Finley, John Fleck, Holly Hughes, and Tim Miller—sued the NEA over the decency clause. A California district court agreed with the artists. The Finley court held that the decency clause, like the obscenity pledge, was unconstitutional because its vagueness denied the artists the due process guaranteed by the Fifth Amendment and because its too-general restriction suppressed speech.

Books

U.S. parents send their children to public schools to receive an education and to learn the fundamental values on which their democratic society is based. Conflict ensues when parents believe that certain schoolbooks contain material that is objectionable on political, moral, or religious grounds and should be banned in order to protect their children from exposure to allegedly harmful ideas. In some instances school boards have responded by physically removing books from school library shelves. In general, advocates of book banning maintain that censorship is warranted to redress social ills, whereas critics believe that freedom of speech is more important and useful to society than imposing values through censorship.

Book banning as a way to remedy social problems was first tested by the Supreme Court in Board of Education v. Pico, 457 U.S. 853, 102 S. Ct. 2799, 73 L. Ed. 2d 435 (1982). In Pico, parents objected to nine books in the high school library, most of which were subsequently removed by the school board. The nine books were Slaughterhouse Five, by Kurt Vonnegut Jr.; Naked Ape, by Desmond Morris; Down These Mean Streets, by Piri Thomas; Best Short Stories of Negro Writers, edited by Langston Hughes; Laughing Boy, by Oliver LaFarge; Black Boy, by Richard Wright; A Hero Ain't Nothin' But a Sandwich, by Alice Childress; Soul on Ice, by eldridge cleaver; and Go Ask Alice, by an anonymous author.

Pico debated the authority of local school boards to censor material in the interest of protecting students. The case reached the Supreme Court because lower courts were unable to devise standards for testing the constitutionality of book removal. The Supreme Court ruled that it is unconstitutional for public school boards to abridge students' First Amendment rights by banning books. Although school boards have the power to determine which books should sit on library shelves, they do not have the authority to censor.

Books published by commercial presses for sale to the general public sometimes meet with harsh condemnation and subsequent action that could be tantamount to censorship. In November 1990, Simon and Schuster canceled its contract with author Bret E. Ellis to publish his novel American Psycho, citing the work's graphic violence and sexual brutality. The National Writers Union decried the cancellation as contrary to free speech and artistic expression and as censorship. The publishing house defended its editorial judgment by claiming it did not want to put its imprint on a book of questionable taste and value. Vintage Books, a division of Random House, soon acquired the novel, and published it in March 1991.

Students' Speech

Students' free speech rights sometimes clash with schools' interest in maintaining control of public education. Students' First Amendment liberties were affirmed by the landmark tinker v. des moines independent community school district, 393 U.S. 503, 89 S. Ct. 733, 21 L. Ed. 2d 731 (1969), which ruled that public school students could not be penalized for wearing symbols, such as black armbands, to protest the Vietnam War.

Two subsequent cases dealing with issues of censorship in school newspapers pointed to a more restrictive judicial view of students' right to free expression. In Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier, 484 U.S. 260, 108 S. Ct. 562, 98 L. Ed. 2d 592 (1988), the Supreme Court ruled in favor of a Hazelwood, Missouri, school principal who removed several articles from a student newspaper. The articles dealt with teen pregnancy and a student's feelings about her parents' Divorce. The court in Hazelwood held that a school newspaper is not a public forum, and thus granted school officials the right to determine what type of student speech is appropriate and to regulate such speech.

Three years later, the ruling in Planned Parenthood v. Clark County School District, 941 F.2d 817 (9th Cir. 1991), was based on Hazelwood. In Planned Parenthood, a public high school newspaper solicited advertisements from local businesses, including Planned Parenthood. The principal refused to allow Planned Parenthood to place an advertisement in school publications and Planned Parenthood sued the school district. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld a district court decision that a public high school publication is not a public forum and that the school could therefore accept or reject advertisements. Both Hazelwood and Planned Parenthood concluded that because public high schools are nonpublic forums, school districts can apply a limited degree of censorship.

Hundreds of public universities in the United States have speech codes to regulate students' choice of words. Speech can be constitutionally curtailed in some circumstances. For example, public Colleges and Universities can forbid threats of violence, prohibit obscene language and conduct (although it is extremely difficult to define or prove obscenity), and punish students for using defamatory speech against each other, all without violating the First Amendment. Numerous cases have successfully contested free speech limitations on campus, suggesting that a majority of these codes are unconstitutional.

In Doe v. University of Michigan, 721 F. Supp. 852 (E.D. Mich. 1989), a biopsychology student maintained that the university's speech code prevented him from freely discussing controversial ideas about biologically based differences between the sexes and races. A district court ruled that the university's code proscribed too great a range of speech and therefore was an unconstitutional infringement on the plaintiff's First Amendment rights. The court also held that the overbroad nature of the code denied his due process rights.

A University of Wisconsin student was accused of violating the university's speech codes by yelling rude comments at a woman. In U.W.M. Post, Inc. v. Board of Regents, 774 F. Supp. 1163 (E.D. Wis. 1991), the university's speech code was also struck down as overbroad. Two years later school officials punished fraternity brothers at George Mason University for dressing in drag and staging an "ugly woman contest." In Iota X Chapter v. George Mason University, 993 F.2d 386 (1993), the Fourth Circuit found that the university had violated the First Amendment because it did not sanction the fraternity merely for its conduct, but rather for the message conveyed by the "ugly woman contest," which ran counter to the views the university sought to foster.

Internet

Computer-mediated communication grows explosively every year and in some ways outpaces and obviates current legal principles. The prevailing concept of law applies to real-world events and transactions, and, as those in the legal field are realizing, may unravel when exercised in cyberspace. As more and more people transmit widely divergent messages on the electronic highway, issues of free speech and censorship become increasingly complicated and regulations difficult to enforce.

The first case of criminal prosecution of electronic communication involved the distribution of pornography over an electronic bulletin board system (BBS). In United States v. Thomas, No. CR-94-20019-G (W.D. Tenn. 1994), Robert Thomas and Carleen Thomas were found guilty of disseminating obscene materials by interstate telephone lines and computer. From their home in California, the Thomases ran an adults-only private BBS from which subscribers could download computer graphics files and order sexually explicit photo-graphs and videotapes while on-line. To gather evidence against the couple, a Memphis postal inspector, under an assumed name, downloaded to his computer many of the pornographic electronic files and ordered tapes.

The Thomases were charged with, among other things, transporting obscene materials across state lines. The couple attempted to transfer their case to the Northern District of California, so that their materials would be measured against that community's standards of obscenity, rather than the obscenity standards of the Western District of Tennessee. The district judge denied their request, noting that in obscenity prosecutions the trial can be held either in the district from which the material was sent or where it was received.

The "virtual" nature of cyberspace poses a number of problems for courts and legislatures on the issue of obscenity. Among the most difficult of these is the issue of community standards. Because the Internet brings together people from all over the United States and all over the world, it defies identification with any particular community. Other difficulties are the criminal element of knowledge and the issue of dissemination. Persons may post and receive information on Internet bulletin boards without the knowledge of those who maintain the BBS, making it difficult to determine whether the BBS operators "knowingly disseminated" obscene materials.

In 1996, Congress passed the Communications Decency Act (CDA), which punished disseminating "indecent" material over the Internet. The Supreme Court struck down the law in Reno v. ACLU, 521 U.S. 844, 117 S.Ct. 2329, 138 L.Ed.2d 874 (1997). Although the Court recognized the "legitimacy and importance of the congressional goal of protecting children from harmful materials," it ruled that the CDA abridged freedom of speech and therefore was unconstitutional. The Court also noted that its previous decisions limiting free speech out of concern for the protection of children were inapplicable in this case, and that the CDA differed from the laws and orders upheld in previous cases in significant ways. For example, the CDA did not allow parents to consent to their children's use of restricted materials; it was not limited to commercial transactions; it failed to provide a definition of "indecent"; and its broad prohibitions were not limited to particular times of the day. Finally, the act's restrictions could not be analyzed as a form of time, place, and manner regulation because it was a content-based blanket restriction on speech.

Congress lost little time in responding to this decision. In 1998, it quickly passed the Child Online Protection Act (COPA), which would make it illegal to use the World Wide Web to communicate "for commercial purposes" any material considered to be "harmful to minors." The law also incorporated the three-part obscenity test that the Supreme Court formulated in Miller v. California. The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and a group of on-line website operators challenged the constitutionality of COPA, arguing that it was over-broad. In addition, the plaintiffs contended that the use of the community standards test would give any community in the United States the ability to file civil and criminal lawsuits under COPA. This meant that the most conservative community in the country could dictate the content of the Internet. A federal appeals court in Philadelphia agreed with these arguments and the government appealed again to the Supreme Court.

The Supreme Court, in Ashcroft v. American Civil Liberties Union, 535 U.S. 564, 122 S.Ct. 1700, 152 L.Ed.2d 771 (2002), produced a decision that failed to give a clear direction. The use of community standards did not by itself make the statute overbroad and unconstitutional under the First Amendment. Apart from that conclusion, the Court could not agree, with five of the justices producing separate opinions. A majority, however, had reservations about the COPA. A number of the justices expressed concern that without a national standard it would be difficult for operators of Internet services to know when they had crossed a line and had subjected themselves to liability. The case was remanded to the lower courts for a full examination of the law on all issues. The fate of COPA is likely to be decided by the Court in a future decision.

As the popularity of the Internet continues to grow, more issues involving censorship are likely to appear. And with the advancement of high-speed Internet access, movies, videos, text, and pictures can now be downloaded with greater ease, creating even more opportunities for legal debate.

Cross-references

Art Law; Entertainment Law; Movie Rating; Schools and School Districts.

ART. The power of doing. something not taught by nature or instinct.Johnson. Eunomus defines art to be a collection of certain rules for doinganything in a set form. Dial. 2, p. 74. The Dictionaire des SciencesMedicales, q.v., defines it in nearly the same terms.
2. The arts are divided into mechanical and liberal arts. Themechanical arts are those which require more bodily than mental labor; theyare usually called trades, and those who pursue them are called artisans ormechanics. The liberal are those which have for the sole or principalobject, works of the mind, and those who are engaged in them are calledartists. Pard. Dr. Com. n. 35.
3. The act of Congress of July 4, 1836, s. 6, in describing thesubjects of patents, uses the term art. The sense of this word in its usualacceptation is perhaps too comprehensive. The thing to be patented is not amere elementary, principle, or intellectual discovery, but a principle putin practice, and applied to some art, machine, manufacture, or compositionof matter. 4 Mason, 1.
4. Copper-plate printing on the back of a bank note, is an art forwhich a patent may be granted. 4 Wash. C. C. R. 9.

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Bibliography

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REFERENCES

ART.

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Censorship

Abortion

Prisoners' Mail

Entertainment

Music

Art

Books

Students' Speech

Internet

Further readings

Cross-references

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Synonyms for art

noun artwork

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