Consistent with theoretical prediction, excessive ingestion of these toxins reduces the survival of unparasitized caterpillars.
Michael S. Singer, Kevi C. Mace, Elizabeth A. Bernays 2009, 'Self-Medication as Adaptive Plasticity: Increased Ingestion of Plant Toxins by ParasitizedCaterpillars', PLoS ONE10.1371/journal.pone.0004796. Retrieved from PLOS CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode)
The larva evoked protective behaviors that occur in unparasitized hosts only during specific life-history periods.
Stanislav Korenko, Stano Pekár 2011, 'A Parasitoid Wasp Induces Overwintering Behaviour in Its Spider Host', PLoS ONE10.1371/journal.pone.0024628. Retrieved from PLOS CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode)
Unparasitized caterpillars do not show these behaviours.
Amir H. Grosman, Arne Janssen, Elaine F. de Brito, Eduardo G. Cordeiro, Felipe Colares,Juliana Oliveira Fonseca, Eraldo R. Lima, Angelo Pallini, Maurice W. Sabelis 2008, 'Parasitoid Increases Survival of Its Pupae by Inducing Hosts to Fight Predators',PLoS ONE10.1371/journal.pone.0002276. Retrieved from PLOS CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode)
Pupal wet weight and adult wing lengths did not differ between parasitized and unparasitized individuals.
Raúl Ernesto Campos, Victoria Elena Sy 2003, 'Mortality in immatures of the floodwater mosquito Ochlerotatus albifasciatus (Diptera:Culicidae) and effects of parasitism by Strelkovimermis spiculatus (Nematoda: Mermithidae)in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina', Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762003000200006. Retrieved from DOAJ CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode)
We induced analogous manipulation in unparasitized hosts by altering ambient conditions.
Stanislav Korenko, Stano Pekár 2011, 'A Parasitoid Wasp Induces Overwintering Behaviour in Its Spider Host', PLoS ONE10.1371/journal.pone.0024628. Retrieved from PLOS CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode)
Parasitized caterpillars are more likely than unparasitized caterpillars to specifically ingest large amounts of pyrrolizidine alkaloids.
Michael S. Singer, Kevi C. Mace, Elizabeth A. Bernays 2009, 'Self-Medication as Adaptive Plasticity: Increased Ingestion of Plant Toxins by ParasitizedCaterpillars', PLoS ONE10.1371/journal.pone.0004796. Retrieved from PLOS CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode)
First, the extent of parasitism varies across populations and parasitized individuals have lower facial pattern brokenness than unparasitized individuals.
Elizabeth A. Tibbetts, Oksana Skaldina, Vera Zhao, Amy L. Toth, Maksim Skaldin, LauraBeani, James Dale 2011, 'Geographic Variation in the Status Signals of Polistes dominulus Paper Wasps', PLoS ONE10.1371/journal.pone.0028173. Retrieved from PLOS CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode)
Survival of both the herbivore and parasitoid increased with plant density and was higher for unparasitized than for parasitized caterpillars.
Minghui Fei, Rieta Gols, Feng Zhu, Jeffrey A Harvey 2016, 'Plant Quantity Affects Development and Survival of a Gregarious Insect Herbivore andIts Endoparasitoid Wasp.', PLoS ONEhttp://europepmc.org/articles/PMC4786310?pdf=render. Retrieved from PLOS CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode)
The best predictor of nest survival was parasitism status, with parasitized nests surviving at lower rates than unparasitized nests.
W Andrew Cox, Frank R Thompson, Brian Root, John Faaborg 2012, 'Declining Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater) populations are associated with landscape-specificreductions in brood parasitism and increases in songbird productivity.', PLoS ONEhttp://europepmc.org/articles/PMC3471865?pdf=render. Retrieved from PLOS CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode)
We found that parasitized snails grew faster and their reproduction was reduced compared to unparasitized individuals indicating parasite-induced gigantism.
Otto Seppälä, Anssi Karvonen, Marja Kuosa, Maarit Haataja, Jukka Jokela 2013, 'Are Sick Individuals Weak Competitors? Competitive Ability of Snails Parasitized bya Gigantism-Inducing Trematode', PLoS ONE10.1371/journal.pone.0079366. Retrieved from PLOS CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode)