chronicchron‧ic /ˈkrɒnɪk $ ˈkrɑː-/ ●●○ adjective 
Word Origin
chronic arthritis chronic asthma chronic heart disease2a chronic problem is one that continues for a long time and cannot easily be solved: chronic unemployment There is a chronic shortage of teachers.3chronic alcoholic/gambler etc someone who has behaved in a particular way for a long time and cannot stop: He was a chronic alcoholic and unable to hold down a job. a chronic smoker4 British English informal extremely bad: The food was absolutely chronic!—chronically /-kli/ adverb: patients who are chronically ill The service is chronically underfunded.
Word OriginWORD ORIGINchronic
ExamplesOrigin:
1400-1500 French chronique, from Greek chronikos ‘of time’, from chronos; ➔ CHRON-EXAMPLES FROM OTHER DICTIONARIES
Thesaurus- chronic unemployment
- California is trying to cope with chronic water shortages.
- China has a chronic shortage of capital, so it must encourage saving.
- He suffers from chronic asthma.
- Steen suffers from chronic high blood pressure.
- the chronic decay of the inner city areas
- We need to take steps to counter the chronic decline in our export market.
- Her injuries have left her with chronic migraine headaches, seizures, insomnia, nausea and short-term memory loss.
- In the chronic disease eggs are present and L3 can be identified following faecal culture.
- In women, chronic use of alcohol reduces vaginal response, and it can cause irregular menstruation and induce premature menopause.
- It brought to light chronic problems with staff and aging equipment.
- No data exist for outcome of the untreated chronic condition followed for more than five years.
- Older people can quickly become dispirited and depressed by chronic illness.
- Some of these patients benefit from referral to a chronic pain center.
Longman Language Activatorwhen a disease cannot be cured► incurable
Collocations · My doctor told me that the cancer was incurable.· Patients with incurable illnesses are brought to the hospice, where they are given the best possible care.
► chronic a chronic illness continues for a very long time or is permanent: · He suffers from chronic asthma.
► terminal a terminal illness is one that cannot be cured, and the person who has it will die from it: · Two years ago, his mother developed terminal cancer.· St Helen's Hospice cares for people with terminal illnesses.the terminal stages (=the last stages of a disease that is killing them): · Many of the patients are in the terminal stages of the disease.
continuing for a long time► long continuing for a long time: · The play was good, but it was a little too long.· He died after a long illness.· It's a long flight - 15 hours.
► lengthy a lengthy process or delay takes a long time so that you have to wait before you can do something: · She died of natural causes after a lengthy illness.· The runways have reopened, but travelers have been warned to expect lengthy delays.lengthy process/procedure etc: · He was indicted on drug charges after a lengthy investigation by the US Drug Enforcement Administration. · The procedures for bringing a body back for burial are lengthy and complex.· Creating a new network system is a lengthy process.
► long-running a long-running event or performance is one that continues for a very long time: · The action is the latest in a long-running battle between the US and Canada relating to Cuban relations. · The proposal would end a long-running dispute between the Internal Revenue and the petroleum producers.· The long-running musical "Jesus Christ Superstar' is to close after more than 3,000 performances.
► long-standing a long-standing situation, agreement, or arrangement has continued for a long time and is likely to continue for a long time in the future: · Motorola has a long-standing agreement to provide at least one week's training to all new employees.· The area is populated by Kurdish rebels who have long-standing grievances against Hussein.· GM maintains a long-standing policy of not commenting on market speculation and rumour.
► lasting strong enough or great enough to continue for a long time: · The speech could do lasting damage to US--German relations.· Japan's creation of a Western-style economy has been the country's lasting achievement.lasting effect/impact etc: · His next book is about the lasting effects of the Vietnam war.lasting peace/friendship/agreement etc: · Until we all give up violence, there cannot possibly be lasting peace in the world.leave/make a lasting impression: · The incident left a lasting impression on the young girl.
► lifelong continuing for all of someone's life - use this about relationships, interests and feelings etc: · She first visited Ireland when she was ten, and developed a lifelong interest in the country.· Depression has been a lifelong struggle for me.lifelong ambition/dream etc: · According to his biographers, he had a lifelong ambition to make money.· For many people, owning their own business is a lifelong goal.lifelong member/resident/friend etc: · Virginia Maples, a lifelong resident, praised the town for its neighborliness. · Alvin met the poet Hughes, who became a lifelong friend and confidante.
► prolonged continuing for a long time, or longer than you expected: · How are you going to explain your prolonged absence?· a prolonged and bloody battle for independence· Studies show that prolonged exposure to maternal depression can result in childhood mood disorders.
► lingering lingering doubts, hopes, or other feelings continue for a long time, especially long after a particular event: · She had a lingering sense of guilt for some time after breaking off her relationship with Henry.· For years, Mexico's primary feeling toward the US was one of lingering resentment.· What will be the lingering images of the Sydney Olympic Games?· If he had any lingering doubts about the marriage, he did not show it.
► enduring an enduring feeling, memory, influence, quality or relationship continues for a long time: · His childhood experiences had an enduring influence on his work.· My most enduring memory of my father is watching him clean his rifle.· The friendships formed in her schooldays proved to be the most enduring.· Cartoons have a universal and enduring appeal.
► abiding formal an abiding feeling, belief, or interest continues for a long time and is not likely to change: · She had a basic and abiding belief in democratic systems.· As a boy he had had an abiding curiosity about how things worked.· The internal security of his country was the President's other abiding concern.· His father had an abiding interest in nature.
► chronic a chronic illness or bad situation continues for a very long time or is permanent: · China has a chronic shortage of capital, so it must encourage saving.· the chronic decay of the inner city areas· We need to take steps to counter the chronic decline in our export market.· He suffers from chronic asthma.
WORD SETS► Illness & Disabilityabscess, nounache, verbache, nounacne, nounagoraphobia, nounagoraphobic, nounague, noun-aholic, suffixAIDS, nounailment, nounairsick, adjectivealbino, nounalcoholic, nounalcoholism, nounallergic, adjectiveallergy, nounamnesia, nounamputee, nounanaemia, nounanaemic, adjectiveangina, nounanorexia, nounanorexic, adjectiveantacid, nounanthrax, nounantibody, nounantidepressant, nounantidote, nounantigen, nounantihistamine, nounanti-inflammatory, adjectiveantitoxin, nounapoplectic, adjectiveapoplexy, nounappendicitis, nounarteriosclerosis, nounarthritis, nounaseptic, adjectiveaspirin, nounasthma, nounastigmatism, nounasymptomatic, adjectiveathlete's foot, nounatrophy, verbauto-immune disease, nounAyurvedic medicine, nounbaby blues, nounbacillus, nounbackache, nounbark, verbbattle fatigue, nounBCG, nounbedridden, adjectivebedsore, nounbed-wetting, nounbellyache, nounbenign, adjectiveberiberi, nounbespectacled, adjectivebetter, adjectivebilious, adjectivebinge, verbbiopsy, nounbirthmark, nounbite, verbbite, nounblack and blue, adjectiveBlack Death, the, black eye, nounblackout, nounbleed, verbbleeding, nounblind, verbblister, nounblister, verbblood bank, nounblood donor, nounblood poisoning, nounbloodshot, adjectiveblood transfusion, nounbloody, adjectivebloody, verbblue baby, nounboil, nounbotulism, nounbrain damage, nounbreakdown, nounbronchitis, nounbruise, nounbruise, verbBSE, nounbubonic plague, nounbug, nounbulimia, nounbump, nounbunion, nounbuzz, verbcalloused, adjectivecallus, nouncancer, nouncandida, nouncanker, nouncarbuncle, nouncarcinogen, nouncarcinogenic, adjectivecarcinoma, nouncardiac, adjectivecardiovascular, adjectivecaries, nouncarpal tunnel syndrome, nouncarrier, nouncarry, verbcarsick, adjectivecast, nouncasualty, nouncataract, nouncatarrh, nouncatatonic, adjectivecatching, adjectivecauliflower ear, nouncerebral palsy, nouncertify, verbcervical smear, nounchapped, adjectivecharley horse, nounchemotherapy, nounchesty, adjectivechicken pox, nounchilblains, nounChinese medicine, nouncholera, nounchronic, adjectivecirrhosis, nounCJD, nouncleanse, verbcleft palate, nounclinic, nounclinical, adjectiveclub foot, nouncold, nouncold sore, nouncolic, nouncolitis, nouncollapse, verbcolour-blind, adjectivecoma, nouncommon cold, nouncommon denominator, nouncommunicate, verbcomplaint, nouncomplicate, verbcomplication, nouncompound fracture, nounconcuss, verbconcussion, nouncondition, nouncongenital, adjectivecongested, adjectiveconjunctivitis, nounconstipation, nounconsumption, nounconsumptive, nouncontagion, nouncontagious, adjectivecontinent, adjectivecontract, verbcontusion, nounconvalesce, verbconvulsion, nouncorn, nouncortisone, nouncot death, nouncough, nounCPR, nouncrack-up, nouncramp, nounCreutzfeldt-Jakob disease, nouncrick, nouncrick, verbcripple, nouncripple, verbcross-eyed, adjectivecroup, nouncurable, adjectivecut, nouncyst, nouncystic fibrosis, nouncystitis, noundecompression sickness, noundeep vein thrombosis, noundeformity, noundegenerative, adjectivedehydrate, verbdelirious, adjectivedelirium, noundelusion, noundementia, noundengue fever, noundepression, noundermatitis, noundiabetes, noundiabetic, adjectivediabetic, noundiagnosis, noundialysis, noundiaper rash, noundiarrhoea, noundiphtheria, noundisability, noundisable, verbdisabled, adjectivedischarge, verbdisease, noundisgorge, verbdislocate, verbdisorder, noundissipated, adjectivedissipation, noundistemper, noundistend, verbdizzy, adjectivedoddering, adjectivedoddery, adjectivedonate, verbdonor, noundouble vision, noundoughy, adjectivedown, adverbDown's syndrome, noundrawn, adjectivedressing, noundrinker, noundrunk, adjectivedrunk, noundrunken, adjectivedull, adjectivedumb, adjectiveDVT, noundysentery, noundyslexia, noundyspepsia, noundyspeptic, adjectiveearache, nouneating disorder, nounEbola, nounectopic pregnancy, nouneczema, nounemaciated, adjectiveemasculate, verbembolism, nounemphysema, nounencephalitis, nounendoscope, nounenervate, verbenteritis, nounepidemic, nounepilepsy, nounepileptic, adjectiveepileptic, nounetiology, nounexcruciating, adjectiveexposure, nouneyeless, adjectiveeye strain, nounfail, verbfaint, nounfester, verbfever, nounfever blister, nounfevered, adjectivefeverish, adjectivefirst aid, nounfit, nounflat feet, nounflat-footed, adjectiveflu, nounfood poisoning, nounfoot and mouth disease, nounfracture, verbfracture, nounfrostbite, noungall, noungammy, adjectiveganglion, noungangrene, noungas, noungash, noungastric, adjectivegastritis, noungastroenteritis, nounGerman measles, nounget, verbgingivitis, nounglandular fever, nounglaucoma, noungnarled, adjectivegonorrhea, noungout, noungrand mal, noungraze, verbgraze, noungriping, adjectivegroggy, adjectivegrowing pains, noungrowth, noungush, verbgynaecology, nounhacking cough, nounhaemophilia, nounhaemophiliac, nounhaemorrhage, nounhaemorrhage, verbhaemorrhoids, nounhalitosis, nounhandicap, nounhandicapped, adjectivehangover, nounhard of hearing, adjectiveharelip, nounhay fever, nounheadache, nounhealth, nounheart attack, nounheartburn, nounheart disease, nounheart failure, nounheat exhaustion, nounheat rash, nounheatstroke, nounheave, verbhepatitis, nounhernia, nounherpes, nounHIV, nounhormone replacement therapy, nounhospital, nounhospitalize, verbhot flush, nounhousebound, adjectiveHRT, nounhump, nounhumpback, nounhunchback, nounhungover, adjectivehydrophobia, nounhypertension, nounhypothermia, nounhysterectomy, nounhysteria, nounhysterical, adjectiveillness, nounimmune, adjectiveimmune system, nounimmunity, nounimmunize, verbimmunology, nounimpacted, adjectiveimpediment, nounimpetigo, nounimpotent, adjectiveincision, nounincontinent, adjectiveincubate, verbincurable, adjectiveindigestion, nounindisposed, adjectiveindisposition, nouninfantile, adjectiveinfantile paralysis, nouninfect, verbinfected, adjectiveinfection, nouninfectious, adjectiveinfirmity, nouninflammation, nouninflammatory, adjectiveinfluenza, nouninfusion, nouningrowing, adjectiveinoculate, verbinoperable, adjectiveinsane, adjectiveinsanity, nouninsomnia, nouninsomniac, nouninstability, nounintensive care, nounintravenous, adjectiveinvalid, nouninvalidity, nouninvasive, adjectiveirregular, adjectiveirritable bowel syndrome, nounirritant, nounirritate, verbirritated, adjectiveirritation, noun-ism, suffixisolation, nounjaundice, nounjaundiced, adjectivejet lag, nounknock-kneed, adjectiveknotted, adjectivelaceration, nounlaryngitis, nounlegionnaire's disease, nounleper, nounleprosy, nounlesion, nounleukemia, nounlisp, nounlisteria, nounliverish, adjectivelockjaw, nounlong-sighted, adjectiveloose, adjectivelozenge, nounlumbago, nounlunacy, nounLyme disease, nounmad cow disease, nounmalady, nounmalaise, nounmalaria, nounmalformation, nounmalignancy, nounmalignant, adjectivemalnourished, adjectivemalnutrition, nounmange, nounmangy, adjectivemania, nounmanic, adjectivemanic depression, nounmastitis, nounME, nounmeasles, nounmedicinal, adjectivemegalomania, nounmegalomaniac, nounmelancholia, nounmelancholic, adjectivemelanoma, nounmend, verbmeningitis, nounmentally handicapped, adjectivemigraine, nounmild, adjectivemiscarriage, nounmole, nounmongol, nounmono, nounmononucleosis, nounmorbid, adjectivemorning sickness, nounmoron, nounmotion sickness, nounmotor neurone disease, nounMRI, nounMRSA, nounMS, nounmultiple sclerosis, nounmumps, nounmurmur, nounmusclebound, adjectivemuscular dystrophy, nounmute, adjectivemute, nounmyopia, nounmyopic, adjectivemyxomatosis, nounnarcolepsy, nounnausea, nounnauseate, verbnauseous, adjectivenearsighted, adjectivenervous breakdown, nounnettle rash, nounneuralgia, nounneurosis, nounneurotic, adjectivenosebleed, nounnotifiable, adjectiveNSU, nounobesity, nounoff-colour, adjectiveoperate, verboperation, nounophthalmic, adjectiveophthalmology, noun-osis, suffixosteoarthritis, nounosteopathy, nounosteoporosis, nounoutpatient, nounoverbite, nounpacemaker, nounpaediatrics, nounpale, adjectivepallid, adjectivepallor, nounpalpitate, verbpalpitations, nounpalsy, nounpandemic, nounparalyse, verbparalysed, adjectiveparalysis, nounparalytic, adjectiveparalytic, nounparanoia, nounparaplegia, nounparaplegic, nounparasitic, adjectiveParkinson's disease, nounparoxysm, nounpasty, adjectivepasty-faced, adjectivepathogen, nounpathological, adjectivepathology, nounpeaked, adjectivepeaky, adjectivepellagra, nounpeptic ulcer, nounperforated, adjectiveperiod pain, nounperitonitis, nounpernicious anaemia, nounpersecution complex, nounpestilence, nounpestilential, adjectivepetit mal, nounpharyngitis, nounphlebitis, nounphlegm, noun-phobic, suffixphysiotherapy, nounpigeon-toed, adjectivepins and needles, nounplacebo, nounplague, nounplaque, nounplaster cast, nounpleurisy, nounPMS, nounPMT, nounpneumonia, nounpockmark, nounpockmarked, adjectivepoisoning, nounpolio, nounpolyp, nounpoor, adjectivepost-traumatic stress disorder, nounpremenstrual tension, nounprescribe, verbprescription, nounpreventive medicine, nounprickle, verbprickly heat, nounprognosis, nounprolapse, nounprophylactic, adjectiveprophylactic, nounprophylaxis, nounpsoriasis, nounpsychopath, nounpsychosis, nounpsychosomatic, adjectivepsychotic, adjectivepuffy, adjectivepull, verbpurulent, adjectivepus, nounpustule, nounqueasy, adjectiverabid, adjectiverabies, nounradiation sickness, nounradiography, nounrash, nounraw, adjectivereact, verbreaction, nounreceive, verbrecuperate, verbrecuperative, adjectiveregurgitate, verbrelapse, verbremission, nounrepetitive strain injury, nounresistance, nounrespond, verbretch, verbRhesus factor, nounrheumatic, adjectiverheumatic fever, nounrheumatism, nounrheumatoid arthritis, nounrickets, nounringworm, nounRSI, nounrubella, nounrun-down, adjectiverunny, adjectiverupture, nounsaddle-sore, adjectivesalmonella, nounscab, nounscabby, adjectivescabies, nounscald, verbscald, nounscaly, adjectivescar, nounscar, verbscarlet fever, nounschizophrenia, nounsciatica, nounsclerosis, nounscrape, verbscrape, nounscratch, nounscurvy, nounseasick, adjectiveseizure, nounself-examination, nounsenile, adjectivesenile dementia, nounsenseless, adjectivesepsis, nounseptic, adjectivesepticaemia, nounserum, nounset, verbsexually transmitted disease, nounshell shock, nounshell-shocked, adjectiveshingles, nounshock, nounshort-sighted, adjectivesickle-cell anaemia, nounsickly, adjectivesickness, nounside effect, nounsightless, adjectivesimple fracture, nounsleeping sickness, nounslipped disc, nounsmallpox, nounsnakebite, nounsnow blindness, nounsore, adjectivesore, nounspastic, adjectivespecial needs, nounspecimen, nounspina bifida, nounsprain, verbsputum, nounsquint, verbsquint, nounstammer, nounstarvation, nounstarve, verbSTD, nounstomachache, nounstone, nounstrain, nounstrain, verbstrangulated, adjectivestrep throat, nounstroke, nounsty, nounsuccumb, verbsufferer, nounsunstroke, nounsuperbug, nounsurgical, adjectiveswelling, nounswollen, adjectivesymptom, nounsymptomatic, adjectivesyndrome, nounsyphilis, nounTB, nountear, verbtetanus, nountherapeutic, adjectivetherapy, nounthrombosis, nounthrush, nountic, nountight, adjectivetingle, verbtinnitus, nountipsy, adjectivetonsillitis, nountoothache, nountorment, nountourniquet, nountoxaemia, nountoxic shock syndrome, nountraction, nountransfusion, nountrauma, nountravel sickness, nountreatment, nountremor, nountuberculosis, nountumour, nountunnel vision, nountwinge, nountwitch, nountyphoid, nountyphus, nounulcer, nounulcerate, verbultrasound, noununderweight, adjectiveundressed, adjectiveunhealthy, adjectiveuntreated, adjectivevaccinate, verbvaccine, nounvaricose veins, nounVD, nounvenereal disease, nounverruca, nounvertigo, nounviral, adjectivevirology, nounvirulent, adjectivevomit, verbvomit, nounwart, nounweak, adjectiveweal, nounweep, verbwheeze, verbwheeze, nounwheezy, adjectivewhiplash, nounwhooping cough, nounwind, nounwithered, adjectivewound, nounwrench, verbwriter's cramp, nounyaws, nounyeast infection, nounyellow fever, noun
COLLOCATIONS FROM OTHER ENTRIES► a chronic condition
Phrases (=continuing for a long time and not possible to cure)· People with chronic medical conditions need long-term care.
► a chronic disease (=continuing for a long time and not possible to cure)· Chronic disease is sometimes seen as an inevitable part of being old.
► chronic illness (=that lasts a long time, and cannot be cured)· Diabetes is an example of a chronic illness.
► a habitual/chronic/inveterate liar formal (=who lies a lot)· Drug users are often habitual liars trying to cover up their addiction.
► chronic pain (=pain that you suffer from for long periods of time)· Many of the elderly patients suffer chronic pain.
► a chronic shortage (=very bad and existing for a long time)· There is a chronic shortage of housing in rural areas.
COLLOCATIONS FROM THE CORPUSNOUN► alcoholic· The sleep patterns of chronic alcoholics are usually quite abnormal.· Even after chronic alcoholics give up booze, their sleep problems may not end.
► bronchitis· The man had a history of chronic bronchitis.· Proponents say the changes will prevent 8,300 premature deaths each year-5,500 cases of chronic bronchitis and 360,000 asthma attacks.· Ten percent of Krakow's children suffer from chronic bronchitis.· For chronic bronchitis, 20 times.· At times this was very difficult for him because he had chronic bronchitis and therefore coughed a great deal.
► condition· It is known, rather alarmingly, as a chronic condition.· If you have a chronic condition that has made it difficult to exercise, this may be the ticket.· Despite the increased difficulties, trials have been carried out on the effects of homoeopathy in a chronic condition - rheumatoid arthritis.· The study predicts the biggest health problems of the next 25 years to be those chronic conditions which largely affect the elderly.· No data exist for outcome of the untreated chronic condition followed for more than five years.· People need to look at it as a chronic condition, much as we look at high blood pressure.· But there are chronic conditions which mean longer stays.· In addition, these meals provide almost no fiber, important for preventing many chronic conditions from cancer to constipation.
► constipation· The rich eat too much meat and suffer from chronic constipation, diseases of the bowel, gout, and bladder stones.· Indeed, his only problem seems to have been chronic constipation.· We found that chronic constipation in young children can persist for many years.· Symptoms of chronic constipation persisted in one third of our patients, 3-12 years after initial evaluation and treatment.· This risk is particularly important in view of the wide abuse of self administered laxatives for chronic constipation.· By contrast, in patients with chronic constipation fasting transit of marker was not recorded.· Patients with idiopathic chronic constipation have a decreased number and duration of giant migrating complexes than healthy controls.· For many patients with severe chronic constipation no cause can be found, hence the condition is labelled as idiopathic.
► diarrhoea· Children who are malnourished with chronic diarrhoea have defective gastric acid secretion.· Cryptosporidium is a cause of chronic diarrhoea and a proximal small intestinal mucosal enteropathy in children without immune deficiency.· Twenty eight patients with chronic diarrhoea were included in the study.· They include poor growth, recurrent chest infections, chronic diarrhoea and skin infections.· Screening for the parasite should be part of the investigative procedures in children with chronic diarrhoea.· Twenty nine percent of cases had a mixed infection, and chronic diarrhoea was more frequent in these patients.· Indeed, chronic diarrhoea has been an infrequently reported finding in studies of immunocompetent children with Cryptosporidium.· We have previously reported two cases associated with chronic diarrhoea, failure to thrive and a proximal small intestinal enteropathy.
► disease· Certainly such pressures and demands point to the need to make both prevention and treatment of chronic diseases a priority.· The women featured in the article are reducing their risk of chronic disease by exercising and by eating a balanced diet.· Eventually the recovery becomes incomplete and we can see the gradual emergence of chronic disease.· With chronic diseases, in particular, it is important to have a good prevalence measure.· Plainly not everyone has to be subject to chronic disease.· For a deeper cure this can be followed up with the constitutional remedy. 12 Can homoeopathy help with chronic disease?· The poor die young - before they can contract the chronic diseases that dearly cost national health schemes.
► fatigue· Survivors still complain of ailments ranging from breathlessness, chronic fatigue and stomach pain to cardiac problems and tuberculosis.· In fact, very little about chronic fatigue syndrome has achieved medical consensus, not even the name.
► gastritis· After eradication of H pylori, duodenal ulcers do not usually recur and the associated chronic gastritis gradually disappears.· Histological examination of these areas at this time confirmed a chronic gastritis and atrophic gastric mucosa.· The prevalence of active chronic gastritis and subsequent gastric atrophy increases with age.· All infected subjects had active chronic gastritis on histological examination.· Perhaps additional factors such as alcoholism, chronic gastritis, and chronic use of drugs are responsible in some cases.
► health· However, it is clear that chronic health problems appear to increase with age.· In considering patterns of morbidity both within and between populations it is usual to distinguish between acute and chronic health problems.· Seven out of 10 people don't have enough food, leading to more disease and other chronic health problems.· Both estimates suggest a significant increase in the numbers of elderly with chronic health problems in the early decades of next century.· The morbidity data presented demonstrated higher prevalence of chronic health problems among women as compared with men.· How well does older people's overall rating of their health status compare with the prevalence of acute and chronic health problems?
► hepatitis· It has been repeatedly reported that smooth muscle antibodies of autoimmune chronic hepatitis are directed to cell actin.· Both reactivities are in fact uncommon in autoimmune chronic hepatitis.· The mechanism responsible for secretion or intracellular retention of pre-S peptides in chronic hepatitis B virus infection is uncertain.· Over half the patients who acquire acute hepatitis C virus infection develop chronic hepatitis.· Patients with chronic hepatitis C should be counselled in the light of our current understanding.· Of particular interest is the relationship between autoimmune chronic hepatitis and hepatitis C virus infection.· Indeed, chronic hepatitis C accounts for many adults referred for liver transplantation.· The association between chronic hepatitis C virus infection and hepatocellular carcinoma has been described, although the exact oncogenic mechanism is unknown.
► illness· Such elders may have given positive meaning to experiences of anxiety, poverty, chronic illness, multiple losses and death.· You can need long-term care because of a disabling accident or a chronic illness.· Older people can quickly become dispirited and depressed by chronic illness.· Difficulty adapting to a chronic illness 2.· The events of the last year had left her mentally drained while she was physically exhausted because of her chronic illness.· Marijuana is said to alleviate painful side effects of treatment for some chronic illnesses.· They must remember that anorexia nervosa is often a chronic illness.· Healthy people can contract necrotizing fasciitis, but people with chronic illnesses or open wounds are more susceptible.
► infection· Other groups with possible relative deficiency would be those with malabsorption and acute or chronic infection.· Examples include patients with chronic infections, inflammation, malignancies, and liver disease.· Many of these diseases take the form of persistent or chronic infections.· Mild hypercalcemia has been reported in chronic infections such as tuberculosis and some fungal diseases.· There were no IgA antibodies to Giardia heat shock antigen, however, in any of these children with chronic infection.· In addition, these patients with chronic infection unlike those who clear the infection have no IgA response to Giardia heat shock antigen.· Little is known of the fundamental aspects of the immunology of chronic infection versus acute infection in giardiasis.· Hypogammaglobulinemia and depressed IgG to surface antigens of Giardia have been suggested as factors contributing to chronic infection.
► inflammation· Again, biopsies showed only chronic inflammation.· This was characterised by moderate active chronic inflammation in the lamina propria.· Biopsies of the pouches of all these patients were reported as showing active chronic inflammation.· Biopsies showed chronic inflammation but no evidence of malignancy.· Doctors call this reaction chronic inflammation to distinguish it from the immediate, acute reaction or injury or allergy.
► liver· Splenomegaly, ascites, and extrahepatic symptoms of chronic liver disease were notably absent.· Discussion Portal hypertension usually complicates the evolution of chronic liver diseases.· This caution can not be overstated in light of the decreased glomerular filtration often present in chronic liver failure.· As controls, cryptogenic cases of chronic liver disease - that is without ANA-H or SMA-AA, were similarly studied.· The diagnosis of chronic liver disease was made by accepted clinical, serological and histological criteria.· They may be appropriate, however, in patients where the history or examination points to systemic disease such as chronic liver disease.
► pain· They paint a dismal picture for patients suffering from chronic pain.· Patients with muscle-contraction headaches often report chronic pain of long duration.· Physiological addiction may occur after repeated use of analgesics for relief from chronic pain.· Ones that enhance the serotonin effects are often helpful in chronic pain disorders.· These drugs have proved effective in other chronic pain syndromes.· Supporters called it an effort to help the ill obtain marijuana to relieve nausea, chronic pain and other maladies.· It is useful to distinguish acute from chronic pain.· Replace it with a picture of an elderly woman in a wheelchair desiring relief from chronic pain.
► pancreatitis· Unfortunately, acute and chronic pancreatitis could not be separated in the discharge statistics before 1977.· According to international multicentre surveys by the Sarles' group, chronic pancreatitis has been found predominantly in two types of countries.· More recent population based studies from the Copenhagen area in the early and late 1970s showed 7-10/100000 incidence of chronic pancreatitis.· Approximately 80% of chronic pancreatitis discharges were men.· A patient with chronic pancreatitis is described in whom thrombosis of a splenic artery pseudoaneurysm occurred.· This finding challenges the notion that carbohydrate malabsorption is uncommon in patients with chronic pancreatitis.· We report on a case of thrombosis of a splenic artery pseudoaneurysm complicating chronic pancreatitis.· Discussion Arterial pseudoaneurysms are not uncommon with acute or, more often, chronic pancreatitis especially when pseudocysts are present.
► problem· Parents needed to be reassured that, although it is a significant chronic problem, it is not life threatening.· Cost overruns for overtime for both the police and fire departments has been a chronic problem for years.· It brought to light chronic problems with staff and aging equipment.· Tardiness, once a chronic problem, has abated.
► shortage· One reason may be the chronic shortage of funds that requires many rural schools to make up their budgets by irregular means.· This religious ban compounded the chronic shortage of grazing land.· Increasingly widespread use probably accentuated a chronic shortage of coin.· The chronic shortage of currency for the acquisition of contemporary foreign publications has been cited as justification.· But still there was a chronic shortage of trained crews.· Meanwhile, there is a chronic shortage of funds.· Why did this chronic shortage of rural council housing persist?
► sickness· Let us turn now to the relationship between the chronic sickness and mortality rates.· Worst of all was the high incidence of epidemics, chronic sickness, and malnutrition.
► unemployment· Even the least sophisticated found it easy to blame the chronic unemployment which afflicted Britain on the war.· The depression of the late 1920s and chronic unemployment appeared to confirm Malthusian pessimism.· But it remains to be seen whether this will exacerbate chronic unemployment or solve it.
PHRASES FROM THE ENTRY► chronic alcoholic/gambler etc
1a chronic disease or illness is one that continues for a long time and cannot be cured → acute: - All the results found in studies on non-alcoholic subjects may not hold true for chronic alcoholic patients.
- Clearly a study needs to be done with chronic alcoholic patients.
- Even after chronic alcoholics give up booze, their sleep problems may not end.
- The sleep patterns of chronic alcoholics are usually quite abnormal.
- There are no studies on the acute effect of alcohol intake on gastric acid secretion in chronic alcoholic patients.
chronic arthritis chronic asthma chronic heart disease2a chronic problem is one that continues for a long time and cannot easily be solved: chronic unemployment There is a chronic shortage of teachers.3chronic alcoholic/gambler etc someone who has behaved in a particular way for a long time and cannot stop: He was a chronic alcoholic and unable to hold down a job. a chronic smoker4 British English informal extremely bad: The food was absolutely chronic!—chronically /-kli/ adverb: patients who are chronically ill The service is chronically underfunded.