per-prefix

Stress is usually determined by a subsequent element and vowels may be reduced accordingly.

Forms: Middle English– per-, 1700s– pre-.

Origin: A borrowing from Latin. Etymon: Latin per-.

Etymology: < classical Latin per-, combining form of per , preposition (see per prep.). For chief senses of classical Latin per-, and examples, see sense sections below.The chief uses in English reflect those in Latin. Classical Latin compounds with per- have descendants in all Romance languages. In French, the reflex is often par- ; par- also occasionally acts as a prefix forming words within Middle French, but no longer in modern French. For resulting variation in English see e.g. parfit , variant of perfect adj., partene , variant of pertain v. The earliest examples in English come from words borrowed from French in the late 13th and early 14th centuries (e.g. perish v., perfect adj., perform v.); loans directly from Latin appear in the 15th cent. (see e.g. perplex adj.). The earliest uses of the combining form in formations within English date from the late 15th and early 16th centuries (e.g. perexcellently adv., perfix v., peradvertence n.). Several early borrowings from French have variants in par- up to the 16th cent. in English and also in Older Scots, even if no such variants are attested in French (e.g. perceive v., perdition n., perpetual adj.). It is possible that unattested French forms underly these; no such variation occurs in native formations.

Forming compounds with verbs, adjectives, and their derivatives.

1. As an etymological element. With the senses:

a. Forming words with the sense ‘through, in space or time; throughout, all over’: with verbs and their derivatives, as classical Latin perambulāre to walk through, perambulate v., perforāre to bore through, perforate v., pervadere to go through, pervade v., pervigilāre to watch through, pervigilate v., etc.; forming adjectives, as pervius having a way through (see pervious adj.), etc.

b. Forming words with the sense ‘thoroughly, completely, to completion, to the end’: with verbs and derivatives, as classical Latin perficere to do thoroughly, complete (see perfect v.), permūtāre to change throughout or completely, permute v., perpetrāre perpetrate v., perturbāre perturb v., etc.; so also peruse v.

c. Forming words with the sense ‘away entirely, to destruction, to the bad’: with verbs and derivatives, as classical Latin perdere to do away with, destroy, lose (see perdition n.), perīre to go to destruction, perish v., pervertere to turn away evilly, pervert v., perimere to take away entirely, destroy, annihilate (see peremptory adj.), etc.

d. Forming words with the sense ‘thoroughly, perfectly, extremely, very’: with adjectives and adverbs, as classical Latin peracūtus very sharp, peracute adj., perdīligēns very diligent, perdiligent adj., post-classical Latin perfervidus, perfervid adj., etc. Formerly also in English with derived nouns (or their analogues), in sense ‘very great’, ‘extreme’: see e.g. perdiligence n., peradvertence n.

2. Chemistry. [Compare sense 1d.] Forming nouns and adjectives denoting the maximum (or supposed maximum) proportion of the specified element or group in a chemical compound.

a. In names of binary compounds in -ide (formerly -uret), designating that in which the element or radical combines in the largest proportion with another element, as perbromide, †perbromuret, †percyanide, and in derived verbs (cf. peroxidize v.) and adjectives (cf. percarburetted adj.).This use of per- was first used in peroxide (see quot. 1804¹ at peroxide n. 1), and was subsequently extended to combinations of other elements, as perchloride, etc., but has now largely been superseded in systematic nomenclature by methods which indicate the chemical formula more precisely, either by a numerical indication of the proportions or of the oxidation state of the electropositive element (e.g. manganese peroxide becoming manganese dioxide or manganese( iv) oxide), or by the use of a specific adjective to indicate the oxidation state of the electropositive element (e.g. iron perchloride becoming ferric chloride or iron( iii) chloride).

perbromide n.

Brit.

/pəːˈbrəʊmʌɪd/

/pəˈbrəʊmʌɪd/

U.S.

/pərˈbroʊˌmaɪd/

ΚΠ

1834 Philos. Trans. (Royal Soc.) 124 582 The best experimental mode of effecting the complete separation of bromine and chlorine..may possibly be by converting the mixture..into perchloride and perbromide of mercury.

2001 Jrnl. Org. Chem. 66 2588 A silyl enol ether..was brominated in situ with phenyltrimethylammonium perbromide.

† perbromuret n. Obsolete rare

ΚΠ

1836 J. M. Gully tr. F. Magendie Formulary (ed. 2) 124 Perbromuret of Iron..is a brick-red salt, very soluble, deliquescent.

† percyanide n. Obsolete rare

ΚΠ

1838 Philos. Trans. (Royal Soc.) 128 94 Percyanide of mercury and corrosive sublimate produce no effect.

1842 E. A. Parnell Elements Chem. Anal. (1845) 347 The soluble double compound of percyanide of cobalt and cyanide of potassium (cobalti-cyanide of potassium).

b. In names of acids in -ous: = hypo- prefix 1e.

pernitrous adj.

Brit.

/pəːˈnʌɪtrəs/

/pəˈnʌɪtrəs/

U.S.

/pərˈnaɪtrəs/

[perhaps after French pernitreux (1816 or earlier).] rare

ΚΠ

1818 W. Henry Elements Exper. Chem. (ed. 8) I. i. xviii. 405 When 400 measures of nitrous gas and 100 measures of oxygen..are mixed together..we obtain 100 measures of a compound, called by Gay Lussac per-nitrous acid. Mr. Dalton..has lately proposed to call it sub-nitrous acid.

1997 Nitric Oxide 1 502 Raman spectroscopy has been used to determine the isotopic distribution of oxygen during the isomerization of pernitrous acid to nitrate.

† perphosphorous adj. Obsolete rare

ΚΠ

1818 W. Henry Elements Exper. Chem. (ed. 8) II. i. xv. 12 Hypo-phosphorous or Per-phosphorous Acid.

c. In names of oxides, acids, etc., in -ic, denoting the compound which contains the greatest proportion of oxygen (and, consequently, the lowest proportion of the specified element), and in names of salts of these acids, and related compounds.This use has now largely been superseded by peroxy-, peroxo-, and unrelated names.

perchromate n.

Brit.

/pəːˈkrəʊmeɪt/

/pəˈkrəʊmeɪt/

U.S.

/pərˈkroʊˌmeɪt/

ΚΠ

1827 Philos. Trans. (Royal Soc.) 117 218 Perchromates of iron.

1979 Mutation Res. 67 221 The perchromate compounds were more efficient in producing chromosomal aberrations than was a chromate compound, K₂CrO₄.

† periridiate n. Obsolete

ΚΠ

1868 H. B. Jones & H. Watts Fownes's Man. Elem. Chem. (ed. 10) 438 A deep indigo-coloured solution of basic potassium periridiate.

pernitrate n.

Brit.

/pəːˈnʌɪtreɪt/

/pəˈnʌɪtreɪt/

U.S.

/pərˈnaɪˌtreɪt/

ΚΠ

1823 W. Henry Elements Exper. Chem. (ed. 9) II. ix. 117 A solution is obtained, in which the metal is more highly oxidated, constituting per-nitrate of mercury.

2001 Nature 26 Apr. 1078 Measurements of a dozen oxygenated chemicals (carbonyls, alcohols, organic nitrates, organic pernitrates and peroxides)..reveal that abundances of oxygenated species are extremely high.

† perruthenate n. Obsolete

ΚΠ

1898 Science 18 Feb. 230/1 Potassium ruthenate and perruthenate were for the first time obtained in a pure and crystallized condition.

1954 Jrnl. Amer. Chem. Soc. 76 3318/2 Each perruthenate ion is in turn surrounded by eight potassium ions with like coördination.

1990 Jrnl. Carbohydrate Chem. 9 661 Ruthenium tetroxide is converted to ruthenate and perruthenate ions in the aqueous solution.

2003 Chem. Communications 6 758/1 Potassium perruthenate (KRuO₄), a known, effective oxidant for the conversion of primary and secondary alcohols into carbonyl compounds is impregnated into zeolite X.

† pertitanate n. Obsolete

ΚΠ

1849 D. Campbell Pract. Text-bk. Inorg. Chem. 272 [They] leave, on washing with water, a pertitanate of the alkali.

perchromic adj.

Brit.

/pəːˈkrəʊmɪk/

/pəˈkrəʊmɪk/

U.S.

/pərˈkroʊmɪk/

perchromic acid, an acid containing chromium in one of its higher oxidation states.

ΚΠ

1854 J. Scoffern in Orr's Circle Sci., Chem. 449 Solutions containing perchromic acid possess a beautiful blue tint.

1990 Analyt. Lett. 23 703 The formation of blue perchromic acid represents one of the most sensitive and selective tests for the identification of chromium.

† periridic adj. Obsolete periridic oxide, iridium trioxide, IrO₃, an oxidizing agent.

ΚΠ

1873 H. Watts Fownes's Man. Elem. Chem. (ed. 11) 436 The trioxide, or Periridic oxide, is not known in the free state.

pernitric adj.

Brit.

/pəːˈnʌɪtrɪk/

/pəˈnʌɪtrɪk/

U.S.

/pərˈnaɪtrɪk/

[after French pernitrique (P. Hautefeuille & J. Chappus 1881, in Comptes rendus hebd. de l'Acad. des Sci. 92 82)] = peroxynitric adj.

ΚΠ

1882 Athenæum 13 May 607/1 Ozone prepared by the electrization of dry air is mixed with another gaseous compound, ‘pernitric acid’.

1936 Jrnl. Chem. Soc. 1411 Since these bands were not given by ozone or by any known oxide of nitrogen, they were attributed to a new oxide of nitrogen, which the authors called ‘pernitric acid’.

1987 Philos. Trans. (Royal Soc.) A. 323 645 Relatively unstable molecules such as chlorine nitrate, pernitric acid and hypochlorous acid may persist long enough in the stratosphere to reduce the rate of ozone destruction.

† perruthenic adj. Obsolete perruthenic acid, ruthenium tetroxide, RuO₄, a poisonous, unstable substance with strong oxidizing properties.

ΚΠ

1868 H. Watts Dict. Chem. V. 138 Tetroxide of ruthenium, RuO₄, Ruthenic tetroxide, Perruthenic acid.

1880 E. Cleminshaw tr. C. A. Wurtz Atomic Theory 233 In perruthenic acid and in osmic acid..ruthenium and osmium act as octovalent elements.

This entry has been updated (OED Third Edition, September 2005; most recently modified version published online March 2022).

单词	per-
释义	per-prefix Stress is usually determined by a subsequent element and vowels may be reduced accordingly. Forms: Middle English– per-, 1700s– pre-. Origin: A borrowing from Latin. Etymon: Latin per-. Etymology: < classical Latin per-, combining form of per , preposition (see per prep.). For chief senses of classical Latin per-, and examples, see sense sections below.The chief uses in English reflect those in Latin. Classical Latin compounds with per- have descendants in all Romance languages. In French, the reflex is often par- ; par- also occasionally acts as a prefix forming words within Middle French, but no longer in modern French. For resulting variation in English see e.g. parfit , variant of perfect adj., partene , variant of pertain v. The earliest examples in English come from words borrowed from French in the late 13th and early 14th centuries (e.g. perish v., perfect adj., perform v.); loans directly from Latin appear in the 15th cent. (see e.g. perplex adj.). The earliest uses of the combining form in formations within English date from the late 15th and early 16th centuries (e.g. perexcellently adv., perfix v., peradvertence n.). Several early borrowings from French have variants in par- up to the 16th cent. in English and also in Older Scots, even if no such variants are attested in French (e.g. perceive v., perdition n., perpetual adj.). It is possible that unattested French forms underly these; no such variation occurs in native formations. Forming compounds with verbs, adjectives, and their derivatives. 1. As an etymological element. With the senses: a. Forming words with the sense ‘through, in space or time; throughout, all over’: with verbs and their derivatives, as classical Latin perambulāre to walk through, perambulate v., perforāre to bore through, perforate v., pervadere to go through, pervade v., pervigilāre to watch through, pervigilate v., etc.; forming adjectives, as pervius having a way through (see pervious adj.), etc. b. Forming words with the sense ‘thoroughly, completely, to completion, to the end’: with verbs and derivatives, as classical Latin perficere to do thoroughly, complete (see perfect v.), permūtāre to change throughout or completely, permute v., perpetrāre perpetrate v., perturbāre perturb v., etc.; so also peruse v. c. Forming words with the sense ‘away entirely, to destruction, to the bad’: with verbs and derivatives, as classical Latin perdere to do away with, destroy, lose (see perdition n.), perīre to go to destruction, perish v., pervertere to turn away evilly, pervert v., perimere to take away entirely, destroy, annihilate (see peremptory adj.), etc. d. Forming words with the sense ‘thoroughly, perfectly, extremely, very’: with adjectives and adverbs, as classical Latin peracūtus very sharp, peracute adj., perdīligēns very diligent, perdiligent adj., post-classical Latin perfervidus, perfervid adj., etc. Formerly also in English with derived nouns (or their analogues), in sense ‘very great’, ‘extreme’: see e.g. perdiligence n., peradvertence n. 2. Chemistry. [Compare sense 1d.] Forming nouns and adjectives denoting the maximum (or supposed maximum) proportion of the specified element or group in a chemical compound. a. In names of binary compounds in -ide (formerly -uret), designating that in which the element or radical combines in the largest proportion with another element, as perbromide, †perbromuret, †percyanide, and in derived verbs (cf. peroxidize v.) and adjectives (cf. percarburetted adj.).This use of per- was first used in peroxide (see quot. 1804¹ at peroxide n. 1), and was subsequently extended to combinations of other elements, as perchloride, etc., but has now largely been superseded in systematic nomenclature by methods which indicate the chemical formula more precisely, either by a numerical indication of the proportions or of the oxidation state of the electropositive element (e.g. manganese peroxide becoming manganese dioxide or manganese( iv) oxide), or by the use of a specific adjective to indicate the oxidation state of the electropositive element (e.g. iron perchloride becoming ferric chloride or iron( iii) chloride). perbromide n. Brit. /pəːˈbrəʊmʌɪd/ , /pəˈbrəʊmʌɪd/ , U.S. /pərˈbroʊˌmaɪd/ ΚΠ 1834 Philos. Trans. (Royal Soc.) 124 582 The best experimental mode of effecting the complete separation of bromine and chlorine..may possibly be by converting the mixture..into perchloride and perbromide of mercury. 2001 Jrnl. Org. Chem. 66 2588 A silyl enol ether..was brominated in situ with phenyltrimethylammonium perbromide. † perbromuret n. Obsolete rare ΚΠ 1836 J. M. Gully tr. F. Magendie Formulary (ed. 2) 124 Perbromuret of Iron..is a brick-red salt, very soluble, deliquescent. † percyanide n. Obsolete rare ΚΠ 1838 Philos. Trans. (Royal Soc.) 128 94 Percyanide of mercury and corrosive sublimate produce no effect. 1842 E. A. Parnell Elements Chem. Anal. (1845) 347 The soluble double compound of percyanide of cobalt and cyanide of potassium (cobalti-cyanide of potassium). b. In names of acids in -ous: = hypo- prefix 1e. pernitrous adj. Brit. /pəːˈnʌɪtrəs/ , /pəˈnʌɪtrəs/ , U.S. /pərˈnaɪtrəs/ [perhaps after French pernitreux (1816 or earlier).] rare ΚΠ 1818 W. Henry Elements Exper. Chem. (ed. 8) I. i. xviii. 405 When 400 measures of nitrous gas and 100 measures of oxygen..are mixed together..we obtain 100 measures of a compound, called by Gay Lussac per-nitrous acid. Mr. Dalton..has lately proposed to call it sub-nitrous acid. 1997 Nitric Oxide 1 502 Raman spectroscopy has been used to determine the isotopic distribution of oxygen during the isomerization of pernitrous acid to nitrate. † perphosphorous adj. Obsolete rare ΚΠ 1818 W. Henry Elements Exper. Chem. (ed. 8) II. i. xv. 12 Hypo-phosphorous or Per-phosphorous Acid. c. In names of oxides, acids, etc., in -ic, denoting the compound which contains the greatest proportion of oxygen (and, consequently, the lowest proportion of the specified element), and in names of salts of these acids, and related compounds.This use has now largely been superseded by peroxy-, peroxo-, and unrelated names. perchromate n. Brit. /pəːˈkrəʊmeɪt/ , /pəˈkrəʊmeɪt/ , U.S. /pərˈkroʊˌmeɪt/ ΚΠ 1827 Philos. Trans. (Royal Soc.) 117 218 Perchromates of iron. 1979 Mutation Res. 67 221 The perchromate compounds were more efficient in producing chromosomal aberrations than was a chromate compound, K₂CrO₄. † periridiate n. Obsolete ΚΠ 1868 H. B. Jones & H. Watts Fownes's Man. Elem. Chem. (ed. 10) 438 A deep indigo-coloured solution of basic potassium periridiate. pernitrate n. Brit. /pəːˈnʌɪtreɪt/ , /pəˈnʌɪtreɪt/ , U.S. /pərˈnaɪˌtreɪt/ ΚΠ 1823 W. Henry Elements Exper. Chem. (ed. 9) II. ix. 117 A solution is obtained, in which the metal is more highly oxidated, constituting per-nitrate of mercury. 2001 Nature 26 Apr. 1078 Measurements of a dozen oxygenated chemicals (carbonyls, alcohols, organic nitrates, organic pernitrates and peroxides)..reveal that abundances of oxygenated species are extremely high. † perruthenate n. Obsolete ΚΠ 1898 Science 18 Feb. 230/1 Potassium ruthenate and perruthenate were for the first time obtained in a pure and crystallized condition. 1954 Jrnl. Amer. Chem. Soc. 76 3318/2 Each perruthenate ion is in turn surrounded by eight potassium ions with like coördination. 1990 Jrnl. Carbohydrate Chem. 9 661 Ruthenium tetroxide is converted to ruthenate and perruthenate ions in the aqueous solution. 2003 Chem. Communications 6 758/1 Potassium perruthenate (KRuO₄), a known, effective oxidant for the conversion of primary and secondary alcohols into carbonyl compounds is impregnated into zeolite X. † pertitanate n. Obsolete ΚΠ 1849 D. Campbell Pract. Text-bk. Inorg. Chem. 272 [They] leave, on washing with water, a pertitanate of the alkali. d. perchromic adj. Brit. /pəːˈkrəʊmɪk/ , /pəˈkrəʊmɪk/ , U.S. /pərˈkroʊmɪk/ perchromic acid, an acid containing chromium in one of its higher oxidation states. ΚΠ 1854 J. Scoffern in Orr's Circle Sci., Chem. 449 Solutions containing perchromic acid possess a beautiful blue tint. 1990 Analyt. Lett. 23 703 The formation of blue perchromic acid represents one of the most sensitive and selective tests for the identification of chromium. † periridic adj. Obsolete periridic oxide, iridium trioxide, IrO₃, an oxidizing agent. ΚΠ 1873 H. Watts Fownes's Man. Elem. Chem. (ed. 11) 436 The trioxide, or Periridic oxide, is not known in the free state. pernitric adj. Brit. /pəːˈnʌɪtrɪk/ , /pəˈnʌɪtrɪk/ , U.S. /pərˈnaɪtrɪk/ [after French pernitrique (P. Hautefeuille & J. Chappus 1881, in Comptes rendus hebd. de l'Acad. des Sci. 92 82)] = peroxynitric adj. ΚΠ 1882 Athenæum 13 May 607/1 Ozone prepared by the electrization of dry air is mixed with another gaseous compound, ‘pernitric acid’. 1936 Jrnl. Chem. Soc. 1411 Since these bands were not given by ozone or by any known oxide of nitrogen, they were attributed to a new oxide of nitrogen, which the authors called ‘pernitric acid’. 1987 Philos. Trans. (Royal Soc.) A. 323 645 Relatively unstable molecules such as chlorine nitrate, pernitric acid and hypochlorous acid may persist long enough in the stratosphere to reduce the rate of ozone destruction. † perruthenic adj. Obsolete perruthenic acid, ruthenium tetroxide, RuO₄, a poisonous, unstable substance with strong oxidizing properties. ΚΠ 1868 H. Watts Dict. Chem. V. 138 Tetroxide of ruthenium, RuO₄, Ruthenic tetroxide, Perruthenic acid. 1880 E. Cleminshaw tr. C. A. Wurtz Atomic Theory 233 In perruthenic acid and in osmic acid..ruthenium and osmium act as octovalent elements. This entry has been updated (OED Third Edition, September 2005; most recently modified version published online March 2022). < prefix1818
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